- Main idea
- The central point a passage conveys — what the whole text is mostly about.
- Supporting detail
- A fact, example, statistic, or reason that explains or proves the main idea.
- Inference
- A logical conclusion drawn from textual evidence plus reasoning — not stated outright.
- Word in context
- A word's meaning based on how it is used in a sentence, not its dictionary entry alone.
- Context clues
- Words or phrases near an unfamiliar word that help reveal its meaning.
- Author's purpose
- The reason a text was written — to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain.
- Tone
- The author's attitude toward the subject, shown through word choice.
- Fact
- A statement that can be proven true or false with evidence.
- Opinion
- A statement of belief, judgment, or feeling that cannot be proven.
- Summarizing
- Capturing the gist of a passage in a sentence or two, in your own words.
- Paraphrasing
- Restating a passage's meaning in different words, keeping the original idea.
- Text structure
- How a text is organized: sequence, cause/effect, compare/contrast, problem/solution.
- Sequence
- A text structure that presents events or steps in order.
- Cause and effect
- A text structure showing how one event leads to (causes) another.
- Compare and contrast
- A text structure that examines how two things are alike and different.
- Problem and solution
- A text structure that states an issue, then a way to resolve it.
- Topic sentence
- The sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph.
- Theme
- The underlying message or lesson of a literary work.
- Primary source
- An original document or object from the time being studied.
- Secondary source
- A source that analyzes or interprets primary sources after the fact.
- Point of view
- The perspective from which a text is written or a story is told.
- Foreshadowing
- A hint or clue about what will happen later in a story.
- Anecdote
- A brief, often personal story used to illustrate a point.
- Bias
- A one-sided slant that favors a particular view, often signaled by loaded words.
- Implication
- Something a text suggests indirectly rather than states outright.
- Explicit detail
- Information stated directly in the text.
- Implicit detail
- Information the text implies, which the reader must infer.
- Drawing conclusions
- Combining textual evidence to decide what is most reasonably true.
- Skimming
- Reading quickly to get the general idea or find key points.
- Scanning
- Reading quickly to locate a specific piece of information.
- Prereading strategy
- An approach used before reading — previewing, predicting, or activating prior knowledge.
- Predicting
- Using clues to guess what a text will be about or what comes next.
- Phonics
- Linking letters and letter patterns to the sounds they make to decode words.
- Decoding
- Translating printed letters into spoken sounds to read a word.
- Syllable
- A unit of pronunciation with one vowel sound; words break into syllables.
- Root word
- The base part of a word that carries its core meaning (e.g., 'port' in 'transport').
- Prefix
- A word part added to the front of a root that changes its meaning (un-, re-, pre-).
- Suffix
- A word part added to the end of a root (-ed, -ing, -tion) that changes form or meaning.
- Synonym
- A word with the same or nearly the same meaning as another word.
- Antonym
- A word with the opposite meaning of another word.
- Homonym
- A word that sounds like another but differs in meaning (and often spelling).
- Alphabetizing
- Putting words in order by their letters, as in a dictionary or index.
- Comprehension question
- A question that checks whether a reader understood a text.
- Open-ended question
- A question that invites explanation, not just a yes/no answer.
- Dictionary skills
- Using guide words, entries, and pronunciation keys to find word meanings.
- Guide words
- The two words at the top of a dictionary page showing its first and last entries.
- Connotation
- The feelings or ideas a word suggests beyond its literal meaning.
- Denotation
- The literal, dictionary definition of a word.
- Persuasive text
- Writing that aims to convince the reader of a position.
- Informational text
- Writing meant to explain or inform, such as an article or manual.
- Literary text
- Writing such as a story, poem, or play, often using narrative or figurative language.
- Pathos
- An appeal to the reader's emotions in persuasive writing.
- Ethos
- An appeal to credibility or character in persuasive writing.
- Logos
- An appeal to logic and evidence in persuasive writing.
- Counterargument
- An opposing viewpoint that a writer acknowledges and refutes.
- Rhetorical question
- A question asked for effect, not expecting an answer.
- Graphic interpretation
- Reading information from tables, charts, diagrams, and graphs in a text.
- Cause-effect signal words
- Words like 'because,' 'so,' and 'therefore' that mark cause/effect.
- Sequence signal words
- Words like 'first,' 'next,' and 'finally' that mark order.
- Reading fluency
- Reading with appropriate speed, accuracy, and expression.
- Activating prior knowledge
- Connecting a new text to what the reader already knows.
- Re-reading
- Reading a passage again to clarify or confirm understanding.
- Genre
- A category of text, such as fiction, biography, or poetry.
- Setting
- The time and place in which a story occurs.
- Main character
- The central person a story focuses on (the protagonist).
- Plot
- The sequence of events that make up a story.
- Conflict
- The central problem or struggle that drives a story.
- Mood
- The feeling or atmosphere a text creates in the reader.
- Word usage in syntax
- Using sentence structure (syntax) as a clue to decode an unfamiliar word.
- Place value
- The value a digit has from its position (ones, tens, hundreds, tenths).
- Order of operations (PEMDAS)
- Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply/Divide (left to right), Add/Subtract (left to right).
- Numerator
- The top number of a fraction — the part being counted.
- Denominator
- The bottom number of a fraction — the number of equal parts in the whole.
- Sum
- The result of adding numbers together.
- Difference
- The result of subtracting one number from another.
- Product
- The result of multiplying numbers together.
- Quotient
- The result of dividing one number by another.
- Common denominator
- A shared denominator used to add or subtract fractions.
- Least common denominator
- The smallest number both denominators divide into evenly.
- Adding fractions
- Find a common denominator, then add the numerators and keep the denominator.
- Multiplying fractions
- Multiply numerators together and denominators together, then simplify.
- Dividing fractions
- Multiply by the reciprocal of the second fraction (flip and multiply).
- Reciprocal
- The fraction flipped upside down; 3/4 has reciprocal 4/3.
- Simplifying a fraction
- Dividing the numerator and denominator by their greatest common factor.
- Equivalent fractions
- Different fractions that name the same value, like 1/2 and 2/4.
- Improper fraction
- A fraction whose numerator is greater than or equal to its denominator (7/4).
- Mixed number
- A whole number plus a fraction, like 1 3/4.
- Decimal
- A number written with a decimal point to show parts of a whole (0.75).
- Adding decimals
- Line up the decimal points, then add as with whole numbers.
- Percent
- A part per hundred; convert to a decimal by dividing by 100 (25% = 0.25).
- Percent of a number
- Convert the percent to a decimal and multiply: 20% of 80 = 0.20 × 80 = 16.
- Percent increase
- Multiply by (1 + the rate): a 25% increase is × 1.25.
- Percent decrease
- Multiply by (1 − the rate): a 30% discount is × 0.70.
- Percent change
- (new − old) ÷ old × 100.
- Integer
- A whole number and its opposite, including negatives and zero.
- Adding integers
- Same signs add and keep the sign; different signs subtract and take the larger's sign.
- Subtracting integers
- Add the opposite: 5 − (−3) = 5 + 3 = 8.
- Absolute value
- A number's distance from zero, always non-negative; |−4| = 4.
- Exponent
- Shows how many times a base is multiplied by itself: 2³ = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
- Squared
- Raised to an exponent of 2; 5² = 25 (5 × 5).
- Square root
- A value that, multiplied by itself, gives the number; √36 = 6.
- Rounding
- Adjusting a number to a nearby place value (round 3,486 to the nearest hundred = 3,500).
- Estimation
- Finding an approximate answer, often by rounding first.
- Variable
- A letter standing for an unknown number (the x in x − 8 = 5).
- Expression
- A combination of numbers, variables, and operations with no equals sign.
- Equation
- A math sentence stating two expressions are equal, using an equals sign.
- Solving an equation
- Use inverse operations on both sides to isolate the variable.
- Inverse operation
- An operation that undoes another (subtraction undoes addition).
- One-step equation
- An equation solved with a single inverse operation, like x + 4 = 9.
- Evaluating an expression
- Substituting a value for the variable, then following PEMDAS.
- Sequence
- An ordered list of numbers that follows a pattern or rule.
- Arithmetic sequence
- A sequence where each term differs by a constant amount.
- Ratio
- A comparison of two quantities, written 3:4 or 3/4.
- Proportion
- An equation stating two ratios are equal; solve by cross-multiplying.
- Cross-multiplying
- Multiplying across the equals sign to solve a proportion.
- Unit rate
- A ratio per single unit, such as miles per hour or cost per item.
- Mean
- The average — the sum of all values divided by how many there are.
- Median
- The middle value of a data set arranged in order.
- Mode
- The value that appears most often in a data set.
- Range (data)
- The difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set.
- Outlier
- A value far from the others that can pull the mean.
- Bar graph
- A graph using bars to compare amounts across categories.
- Line graph
- A graph using points connected by lines to show change over time.
- Pictograph
- A graph that uses pictures or symbols to represent amounts.
- Pie chart
- A circular graph showing parts of a whole as slices.
- Reading a graph
- Check the title, axis labels, and scale before reading values.
- Perimeter
- The distance around a two-dimensional shape (sum of its sides).
- Area
- The surface a shape covers, in square units.
- Area of a rectangle
- Length × width.
- Area of a triangle
- ½ × base × height.
- Area of a square
- Side × side (side squared).
- Circumference
- The distance around a circle: π × diameter.
- Volume
- The space inside a 3-D shape, in cubic units.
- Volume of a box
- Length × width × height (a rectangular prism).
- Right triangle
- A triangle with one 90-degree angle.
- Isosceles triangle
- A triangle with two equal sides and two equal angles.
- Equilateral triangle
- A triangle with three equal sides and three equal angles.
- Polygon
- A closed shape with three or more straight sides.
- Quadrilateral
- A four-sided polygon, such as a square or rectangle.
- Angle
- The space between two rays meeting at a point, measured in degrees.
- Right angle
- An angle that measures exactly 90 degrees.
- Coordinate plane
- A grid formed by a horizontal x-axis and vertical y-axis.
- Ordered pair
- A point's location written (x, y) on the coordinate plane.
- Origin
- The point (0, 0) where the x-axis and y-axis meet.
- Unit conversion
- Changing a measurement to another unit (12 inches = 1 foot).
- Word problem
- A math problem stated in words that you translate into an operation.
- Greater than (>)
- A symbol meaning the left value is larger than the right (5 > 3).
- Less than (<)
- A symbol meaning the left value is smaller than the right (3 < 5).
- Less than or equal (≤)
- A symbol meaning a value is smaller than or equal to another.
- Even number
- A whole number divisible by 2 (2, 4, 6, …).
- Odd number
- A whole number not divisible by 2 (1, 3, 5, …).
- Factor
- A number that divides another exactly (3 is a factor of 12).
- Multiple
- The product of a number and an integer (12 is a multiple of 3).
- Greatest common factor
- The largest factor shared by two or more numbers.
- Least common multiple
- The smallest multiple shared by two or more numbers.
- Prime number
- A whole number greater than 1 with only two factors: 1 and itself.
- Mental math
- Computing without paper or a calculator, often by estimating.
- Repeated addition
- Multiplication seen as adding the same number several times.
- Repeated subtraction
- Division seen as subtracting the same number until reaching zero.
- Noun
- A word naming a person, place, thing, or idea.
- Pronoun
- A word that replaces a noun (he, she, it, they).
- Verb
- A word expressing an action or a state of being.
- Adjective
- A word that describes a noun (a *bright* light).
- Adverb
- A word that describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb (ran *quickly*).
- Preposition
- A word showing a relationship of place or time (in, on, under, after).
- Conjunction
- A word that joins words or clauses (and, but, or, because).
- Interjection
- A word that shows emotion (Wow! Oh!).
- Subject
- The noun or pronoun a sentence is about — who or what does the action.
- Predicate
- The part of a sentence that says what the subject does or is.
- Subject-verb agreement
- A singular subject takes a singular verb; a plural subject takes a plural verb.
- Pronoun agreement
- A pronoun must match the noun it replaces in number and gender.
- Pronoun case
- Choosing the right pronoun form: subjective (he), objective (him), or possessive (his).
- Verb tense
- When an action happens — past, present, or future.
- Tense consistency
- Keeping verb tense the same unless the meaning requires a shift.
- Complete sentence
- A group of words with a subject and a verb expressing a complete thought.
- Sentence fragment
- An incomplete sentence missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought.
- Run-on sentence
- Two complete sentences joined without correct punctuation or a conjunction.
- Comma splice
- Two independent clauses joined by only a comma — a type of run-on.
- Independent clause
- A group of words with a subject and verb that can stand alone.
- Dependent clause
- A clause that cannot stand alone and needs an independent clause.
- Parallel structure
- Using the same grammatical form for items in a list or comparison.
- Modifier
- A word or phrase that describes another; place it next to what it describes.
- Dangling modifier
- A modifier with no clear word to describe, creating confusion.
- Misplaced modifier
- A modifier set too far from the word it describes.
- Comma
- A punctuation mark used to separate items, clauses, or set off phrases.
- Comma in a series
- A comma separating three or more items: red, white, and blue.
- Oxford comma
- The comma before 'and' in a list of three or more items.
- Semicolon
- Punctuation that joins two closely related independent clauses.
- Colon
- Punctuation that introduces a list, explanation, or quotation.
- Apostrophe
- Shows possession (dog's) or contraction (it's = it is); not used for plurals.
- Quotation marks
- Punctuation that sets off direct speech or a quoted phrase.
- End punctuation
- A period, question mark, or exclamation point that ends a sentence.
- Capitalization
- Beginning sentences and proper nouns with a capital letter.
- Proper noun
- The specific name of a person, place, or thing, always capitalized.
- Common noun
- A general, non-specific noun (city, teacher) that is not capitalized.
- Spelling
- Writing words with the correct letters in the correct order.
- Their / there / they're
- Their = possessive; there = place; they're = they are.
- Your / you're
- Your = possessive; you're = you are.
- Its / it's
- Its = possessive; it's = it is.
- Then / than
- Then = time/sequence; than = comparison.
- Affect / effect
- Affect (verb) = to influence; effect (noun) = a result.
- To / too / two
- To = direction/infinitive; too = also/excessively; two = the number 2.
- Writing process
- Prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing.
- Prewriting
- Planning and generating ideas before drafting (lists, webs, outlines).
- Brainstorming
- Listing ideas freely before organizing them.
- Freewriting
- Writing nonstop to generate ideas without worrying about correctness.
- Outlining
- Organizing ideas into a structured plan before drafting.
- Drafting
- Writing a first version, focusing on ideas rather than perfection.
- Revising
- Improving a draft's ideas, organization, and clarity.
- Editing
- Fixing grammar, usage, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.
- Proofreading
- A final check for surface errors before publishing.
- Publishing
- Producing the final, clean copy to share.
- Thesis statement
- A sentence stating the main point or position of an essay.
- Topic sentence (writing)
- The sentence that states a paragraph's main idea.
- Paragraph
- A group of sentences developing one main idea.
- Introduction
- The opening paragraph that presents the topic and thesis.
- Body paragraph
- A paragraph that develops one supporting point with details.
- Conclusion
- The closing paragraph that restates the point and wraps up.
- Transition
- A word or phrase signaling the relationship between ideas (however, therefore).
- Coherence
- The logical, smooth flow of ideas in writing.
- Unity
- Keeping every sentence in a paragraph focused on one main idea.
- Audience
- The intended readers, whose needs shape word choice and tone.
- Purpose (writing)
- The reason for writing: to inform, persuade, narrate, or describe.
- Narrative writing
- Writing that tells a story or recounts events.
- Descriptive writing
- Writing that paints a vivid picture using sensory detail.
- Persuasive writing
- Writing that argues a position to convince the reader.
- Expository writing
- Writing that explains or informs about a topic.
- Reference materials
- Tools like dictionaries, thesauruses, and encyclopedias for writing support.
- Thesaurus
- A reference listing synonyms and antonyms for words.
- Concise writing
- Expressing ideas clearly without unnecessary words.
- Redundancy
- Repeating the same idea unnecessarily (e.g., 'free gift').
- Word choice (diction)
- Selecting precise, appropriate words for the audience and tone.
- Active voice
- When the subject performs the action (The team won the game).
- Passive voice
- When the subject receives the action (The game was won by the team).
- Double negative
- Using two negatives where one is meant, an error in standard English.
- Sentence variety
- Mixing sentence lengths and structures to improve style.
- Compound sentence
- Two independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semicolon.
- Complex sentence
- An independent clause plus at least one dependent clause.
- Antecedent
- The noun a pronoun refers back to.
- Subordinating conjunction
- A word (because, although, since) that begins a dependent clause.
- Coordinating conjunction
- A FANBOYS word (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) joining equal parts.
- Article (grammar)
- The words a, an, and the, used before nouns.
- Plural noun
- A noun naming more than one, usually formed by adding -s or -es.
- Possessive noun
- A noun showing ownership, formed with an apostrophe (the student's book).
- Helping verb
- A verb (is, have, will) that supports the main verb.
- Sentence purpose
- Whether a sentence states, asks, commands, or exclaims.
- Clarity
- Writing so the meaning is immediately understandable.
- Helping a student edit
- Pointing to a rule or error so the student makes the correction.
