- Canine parvovirus (CPV-2) enteritis
- Highly contagious viral disease of mostly unvaccinated young dogs causing severe hemorrhagic vomiting and diarrhea, profound leukopenia, and dehydration. Diagnosed by fecal antigen ELISA; treated with aggressive fluids, antiemetics, and supportive care.
- Feline leukemia virus (FeLV)
- Retrovirus spread by close contact (saliva, grooming, bites) that causes immunosuppression, anemia, and lymphoma. A persistently viremic cat usually has a poor long-term prognosis; screen with ELISA and confirm progressive infection.
- Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)
- Retrovirus transmitted mainly by deep bite wounds (intact outdoor toms at highest risk). Causes progressive immunosuppression. Many cats live years with good care; antibody-positive kittens may have maternal antibody and should be retested.
- Equine colic
- Abdominal pain from many GI causes (impaction, gas, displacement, strangulation). Assess pain, heart rate, gut sounds, nasogastric reflux, and rectal exam; surgical lesions are suggested by uncontrollable pain, high heart rate, and reflux.
- Gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV)
- Life-threatening emergency in large, deep-chested dogs where the stomach distends and rotates, causing shock and gastric necrosis. Treat with shock fluids, gastric decompression, and surgery (gastropexy prevents recurrence).
- Bovine ruminal bloat
- Overdistension of the rumen with gas. Frothy (primary) bloat is from legume-rich pasture and treated with an antifoaming agent such as poloxalene; free-gas (secondary) bloat is relieved by passing a stomach tube or trocarization in an emergency.
- Bovine mastitis
- Inflammation of the mammary gland, usually bacterial (environmental coliforms or contagious organisms like Staph. aureus and Strep. agalactiae). Diagnosed by California Mastitis Test and milk culture; coliform mastitis can cause endotoxemia.
- Milk fever (hypocalcemia / parturient paresis)
- Periparturient hypocalcemia in high-producing dairy cows near calving. Causes weakness, recumbency, and an S-shaped neck; treated with slow IV calcium borogluconate while monitoring the heart.
- Grass tetany (hypomagnesemia)
- Acute hypomagnesemia in lactating cattle grazing lush, fast-growing spring grass low in magnesium. Causes hyperexcitability, tetany, and seizures; treat with IV/SC magnesium plus calcium.
- Bovine ketosis
- Negative energy balance in early-lactation dairy cows, producing ketonuria/ketonemia, decreased appetite and milk yield. Treat with IV dextrose, propylene glycol, and sometimes corticosteroids.
- Equine laminitis
- Inflammation/failure of the laminae bonding the hoof wall to the coffin bone, causing severe lameness and possible P3 rotation. Triggers include carbohydrate overload, endocrine disease (PPID/EMS), and sepsis; treat the cause plus mechanical support.
- Canine heartworm disease (Dirofilaria immitis)
- Mosquito-transmitted filarial worm living in the pulmonary arteries and right heart, causing cough, exercise intolerance, and right-sided heart failure. Screen by antigen test; adulticide is melarsomine with strict exercise restriction.
- Diabetes mellitus in dogs and cats
- Insulin deficiency or resistance causing hyperglycemia, glucosuria, PU/PD, and weight loss. Dogs are typically insulin-dependent; many diabetic cats can achieve remission with weight control and early insulin plus a low-carbohydrate diet.
- Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
- Severe complicated diabetes with ketosis, metabolic acidosis, and dehydration. Treat with IV fluids, careful potassium and phosphorus supplementation, and regular insulin once volume is restored.
- Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
- Progressive, irreversible loss of nephron function causing azotemia, isosthenuria, PU/PD, and often hypertension and anemia. Staged by IRIS using creatinine/SDMA, proteinuria, and blood pressure; managed with renal diet and supportive care.
- Hepatic lipidosis (feline)
- Excess fat accumulation in hepatocytes, usually after a period of anorexia in an obese cat, causing jaundice and increased liver enzymes. Treatment centers on aggressive enteral feeding to reverse the negative energy balance.
- Hyperthyroidism (feline)
- Most common feline endocrine disease, usually from a benign thyroid adenoma, causing weight loss with a good appetite, tachycardia, and an elevated total T4. Options include methimazole, radioactive iodine, surgery, or an iodine-restricted diet.
- Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's disease)
- Cortisol excess (pituitary- or adrenal-dependent) causing PU/PD, polyphagia, a pot-bellied abdomen, and alopecia. Screen with low-dose dexamethasone suppression or ACTH stimulation; treat with trilostane.
- Hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease)
- Deficiency of cortisol and usually aldosterone, the 'great pretender,' causing vague GI signs and, in crisis, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, and collapse. Confirm with an ACTH stimulation test; treat the crisis with fluids and glucocorticoids.
- Hypothyroidism (canine)
- Deficient thyroid hormone, usually from lymphocytic thyroiditis, causing weight gain, lethargy, and bilaterally symmetric alopecia. Confirm with low total/free T4 and high TSH; treat with levothyroxine.
- Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA)
- Antibody-mediated red cell destruction causing regenerative anemia, spherocytes, autoagglutination, and often a positive Coombs test. Treatment is immunosuppression (glucocorticoids plus additional agents as needed) plus thromboprophylaxis.
- Pyometra
- Hormone-driven bacterial infection of the uterus in intact bitches/queens during diestrus, often after estrus. Open-cervix cases show purulent discharge; closed cervix risks sepsis. Definitive treatment is ovariohysterectomy plus fluids and antibiotics.
- Feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD)
- Syndrome of dysuria, pollakiuria, and periuria in cats; most non-obstructed cases are feline idiopathic cystitis. Urethral obstruction (mostly male cats) is a true emergency due to post-renal azotemia and hyperkalemia.
- Urethral obstruction in the cat
- Emergency where a urethral plug or stone blocks urine flow, causing azotemia and life-threatening hyperkalemia. Stabilize with IV fluids and treat hyperkalemia (calcium gluconate for cardioprotection) before relieving the obstruction.
- Hyperkalemia ECG changes
- As serum potassium rises: peaked/tented T waves, then a flattened or absent P wave, widened QRS, bradycardia, and eventually a sine-wave pattern. Calcium gluconate is cardioprotective; insulin/dextrose and bicarbonate shift potassium into cells.
- Canine distemper virus
- Paramyxovirus of unvaccinated dogs causing biphasic fever, oculonasal discharge, GI and respiratory signs, hyperkeratosis of nose/footpads ('hard pad'), and neurologic signs such as myoclonus. Prevented by core vaccination.
- Infectious canine tracheobronchitis ('kennel cough')
- Contagious respiratory disease (Bordetella bronchiseptica, parainfluenza, others) causing a harsh, honking cough. Usually self-limiting in healthy dogs; Bordetella and parainfluenza vaccines reduce spread.
- Feline upper respiratory infection complex
- Sneezing, conjunctivitis, and oculonasal discharge most often caused by feline herpesvirus-1 and feline calicivirus. Herpes tends to cause keratitis/dendritic ulcers; calicivirus causes oral ulcers.
- Equine recurrent airway obstruction (heaves)
- Allergic lower-airway disease of stabled horses exposed to hay/dust molds, causing chronic cough, exercise intolerance, and a 'heave line.' Management is environmental dust control plus corticosteroids and bronchodilators.
- Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex
- Multifactorial pneumonia of cattle (shipping fever) involving stress, viruses (BRSV, IBR, PI3, BVDV), and bacteria such as Mannheimia haemolytica. Managed with metaphylaxis, antimicrobials, and reducing stress at weaning/transport.
- Complete blood count (CBC)
- Quantifies red cells, white cells, and platelets. Used to characterize anemia (regenerative vs non-regenerative), classify leukocyte responses (inflammation, stress, leukemia), and detect thrombocytopenia.
- Stress leukogram
- Pattern from endogenous or exogenous corticosteroids: mature neutrophilia, lymphopenia, eosinopenia, and often mild monocytosis (the latter mainly in dogs). Distinct from an inflammatory left shift with bands.
- Inflammatory leukogram / left shift
- Neutrophilia with increased immature (band) neutrophils, indicating an inflammatory demand on the bone marrow. A degenerative left shift (bands exceeding mature neutrophils) signals severe, often overwhelming inflammation.
- Regenerative vs non-regenerative anemia
- Regenerative anemia shows reticulocytosis and polychromasia (blood loss or hemolysis); non-regenerative anemia lacks an adequate reticulocyte response (anemia of chronic disease, renal disease, or marrow failure).
- Azotemia: pre-renal, renal, post-renal
- Elevated BUN/creatinine. Pre-renal (dehydration) pairs with concentrated urine; renal pairs with isosthenuria and inadequate concentration; post-renal arises from obstruction or uroabdomen. Urine specific gravity helps localize.
- Liver enzyme interpretation (ALT, ALP)
- ALT is a hepatocellular leakage enzyme (most liver-specific in dogs/cats); ALP and GGT are cholestatic/inducible enzymes. In cats even mild ALP elevation is significant; in dogs ALP rises with cholestasis, steroids, and endocrine disease.
- Urinalysis components
- Includes specific gravity (concentrating ability), dipstick chemistry (protein, glucose, pH, blood, bilirubin), and sediment exam (cells, casts, crystals, bacteria). Glucosuria without hyperglycemia suggests proximal tubular disease.
- Urine specific gravity interpretation
- Reflects renal concentrating ability. Isosthenuria (about 1.008 to 1.012) with azotemia indicates renal failure. Adequate concentration (dog above ~1.030, cat above ~1.035) with azotemia points to a pre-renal cause.
- Cytology (fine-needle aspirate) basics
- Sampling cells to classify a lesion as inflammatory or neoplastic. Inflammation is named by predominant cells (neutrophilic/suppurative, etc.); criteria of malignancy include anisocytosis, anisokaryosis, and prominent variable nucleoli.
- Calcium oxalate vs struvite urolithiasis
- Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) often forms in alkaline urine and can be dissolved with diet; calcium oxalate forms in acidic urine and cannot be dissolved, requiring removal. Urine pH and crystal morphology guide diagnosis.
- NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)
- Inhibit cyclooxygenase to reduce pain and inflammation. Key risks are GI ulceration, renal injury (especially with dehydration or hypotension), and hepatopathy; avoid combining with corticosteroids or other NSAIDs.
- Acetaminophen toxicity in cats
- Cats lack adequate glucuronidation and are exquisitely sensitive: acetaminophen causes methemoglobinemia (cyanosis, facial/paw edema) and hepatotoxicity. Never give to cats; treat with N-acetylcysteine.
- Ivermectin sensitivity and the MDR1 (ABCB1) mutation
- Herding breeds (Collies, Australian Shepherds, others) with the ABCB1/MDR1 mutation have a defective P-glycoprotein blood-brain barrier and develop neurologic toxicity from high-dose macrocyclic lactones. Heartworm-prevention doses are safe; avoid high doses.
- Beta-lactam antibiotics
- Penicillins and cephalosporins inhibit bacterial cell-wall synthesis; they are time-dependent and generally bactericidal. Penicillins favor gram-positives, while later-generation cephalosporins broaden gram-negative coverage.
- Aminoglycoside antibiotics
- Gentamicin and amikacin are concentration-dependent bactericidal drugs effective against aerobic gram-negatives. Major risks are nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity; they are inactive in anaerobic abscess environments.
- Fluoroquinolone antibiotics
- Enrofloxacin and marbofloxacin inhibit DNA gyrase and are concentration-dependent. Enrofloxacin can cause retinal degeneration/blindness in cats at high doses and is associated with cartilage damage in young growing animals.
- Corticosteroids (glucocorticoids)
- Potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs. Side effects include PU/PD, polyphagia, iatrogenic Cushing's, immunosuppression, and delayed healing; do not combine with NSAIDs because of GI ulcer risk.
- Alpha-2 agonists (xylazine, dexmedetomidine)
- Sedative-analgesics causing dose-dependent bradycardia, vasoconstriction, and hypertension followed by hypotension. Reversible with atipamezole (or yohimbine); cattle are especially sensitive to xylazine.
- Opioid analgesics
- Mu-agonists (morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl) provide strong analgesia; buprenorphine is a partial agonist and butorphanol a mixed agonist-antagonist with weak analgesia. Effects reversible with naloxone.
- Anesthetic induction agents (propofol, ketamine, alfaxalone)
- Propofol gives smooth IV induction with apnea risk; ketamine is a dissociative that maintains some reflexes and is contraindicated alone in HCM cats; alfaxalone is a neurosteroid induction agent.
- Inhalant anesthetics (isoflurane, sevoflurane)
- Volatile agents maintaining anesthesia; depth tracks MAC. Both cause dose-dependent cardiopulmonary depression and vasodilation; sevoflurane has lower blood solubility for faster induction/recovery.
- Anesthetic monitoring of depth
- Surgical plane is judged by eye position (ventromedial in dogs/cats), loss of palpebral reflex, jaw tone, and stable vitals. Combine with capnography, pulse oximetry, blood pressure, ECG, and temperature.
- Pulse oximetry vs capnography
- Pulse oximetry estimates hemoglobin oxygen saturation (oxygenation); capnography measures end-tidal CO2 (ventilation and airway patency). A sudden loss of the capnograph waveform suggests apnea, disconnection, or cardiac arrest.
- Local anesthetics (lidocaine, bupivacaine)
- Block sodium channels to stop nerve conduction. Lidocaine acts fast and short; bupivacaine is slower with longer duration. Both are cardiotoxic if given IV in excess, and cats are more sensitive to overdose.
- Principles of aseptic surgical technique
- Preventing microbial contamination through sterilization, hand antisepsis and gowning/gloving, skin preparation, and maintaining a sterile field. Halsted's principles emphasize gentle tissue handling, hemostasis, and obliteration of dead space.
- Ovariohysterectomy (spay)
- Surgical removal of ovaries and uterus to prevent reproduction, pyometra, and (if done early) mammary tumors. Complications include hemorrhage from a dropped pedicle and inadvertent ureteral ligation.
- Suture material selection
- Absorbable (PDS, poliglecaprone, polyglactin) supports healing tissues then degrades; non-absorbable (nylon, polypropylene) is for skin or permanent support. Monofilament resists infection; multifilament has better handling but wicks bacteria.
- Wound healing phases
- Inflammation (hemostasis, debridement), proliferation (granulation, epithelialization, contraction), and maturation/remodeling. Factors like infection, steroids, poor perfusion, and protein malnutrition delay healing.
- Radiographic positioning terminology
- Views are named entrance-to-exit (e.g., dorsoventral, ventrodorsal, lateromedial). Standard orthogonal views (two perpendicular projections) are needed to localize a lesion in three dimensions.
- Radiographic opacities
- Five basic opacities from least to most radiopaque: gas, fat, soft tissue/fluid, bone/mineral, and metal. The silhouette sign means two soft-tissue structures in contact lose their border on the image.
- Abdominal ultrasound (AFAST/FAST)
- Point-of-care ultrasound to detect free abdominal fluid (hemoabdomen, uroabdomen, effusion) at standardized sites. Aspiration of detected fluid characterizes it and guides emergency decisions.
- Heartworm life cycle and prevention
- Microfilariae taken up by a mosquito mature to infective L3, are deposited in the host, and migrate to the pulmonary arteries over about 6 months. Monthly macrocyclic-lactone preventives kill larval stages before maturation.
- Toxocara (roundworm) and zoonotic risk
- Common ascarid of dogs/cats with transmammary and transplacental transmission, causing pot-bellied young animals. Larvae cause visceral/ocular larva migrans in people, so routine deworming and fecal exams are important.
- Hookworms (Ancylostoma)
- Blood-feeding intestinal nematodes causing anemia and dark, tarry stool, especially in puppies. Transmission is oral, transmammary, or percutaneous; larvae can cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.
- Tapeworms (Dipylidium, Taenia)
- Cestodes whose proglottids (rice-grain segments) appear in feces or around the anus. Dipylidium requires ingestion of an infected flea, so flea control is part of prevention and treatment is praziquantel.
- Giardia
- Protozoal cause of small-bowel, often intermittent, soft/greasy diarrhea. Trophozoites show falling-leaf motility; diagnose with fecal antigen test or zinc-sulfate flotation, and treat with fenbendazole and/or metronidazole.
- Coccidiosis (Eimeria, Cystoisospora)
- Protozoal enteritis causing diarrhea in young, crowded, or stressed animals. Oocysts are seen on fecal flotation; control combines sanitation and anticoccidials such as sulfonamides or amprolium.
- Sarcoptic mange (scabies)
- Intensely pruritic, contagious, zoonotic mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) burrowing into skin, causing crusting at ear margins, elbows, and hocks; a positive pinnal-pedal reflex is suggestive. Deep skin scrapes may miss mites, so treat on suspicion.
- Demodicosis
- Overgrowth of Demodex mites (normal skin commensals) causing alopecia and, when generalized, secondary pyoderma; it reflects immune compromise rather than contagion. Diagnose by deep skin scrapings showing the cigar-shaped mites.
- Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) toxicosis
- Sweet-tasting toxin metabolized to oxalate, causing early CNS signs, then severe metabolic acidosis and oxalate-crystal renal failure. Time-critical treatment with fomepizole (or ethanol) blocks alcohol dehydrogenase.
- Anticoagulant rodenticide toxicosis
- Vitamin-K-antagonist baits deplete clotting factors II, VII, IX, X, causing delayed bleeding (cavitary, pulmonary) days after ingestion. Diagnose with prolonged PT/PTT; treat with vitamin K1 and plasma/transfusion if actively bleeding.
- Chocolate (methylxanthine) toxicosis
- Theobromine and caffeine cause vomiting, hyperactivity, tachyarrhythmias, and seizures; darker chocolate is more toxic. Treat with decontamination, fluids, and control of arrhythmias and seizures.
- Xylitol toxicosis in dogs
- Sugar substitute that triggers a strong insulin release causing hypoglycemia, and at higher doses acute hepatic necrosis. Treat with dextrose support, hepatoprotectants, and monitoring of liver values.
- Lily toxicosis in cats
- True lilies (Lilium and Hemerocallis) cause acute kidney injury in cats; even small amounts of any plant part or pollen are dangerous. Early decontamination and aggressive fluid diuresis are essential.
- Organophosphate / carbamate toxicosis
- Cholinesterase inhibitors causing SLUDGE signs (salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, GI upset, emesis), miosis, and muscle tremors. Treat with atropine for muscarinic signs and pralidoxime for organophosphates.
- Cherry eye (prolapsed nictitans gland)
- Prolapse of the third-eyelid (nictitating membrane) tear gland appearing as a red mass at the medial canthus, common in young brachycephalic and certain breeds. Treat by surgical replacement (pocket technique), not excision, to preserve tear production.
- Corneal ulcer diagnosis
- Epithelial/stromal defect causing pain, blepharospasm, and ocular discharge; it retains fluorescein stain. A deep or infected ulcer with stromal melting (keratomalacia) is an emergency; never use topical steroids on an ulcer.
- Glaucoma
- Increased intraocular pressure causing pain, a red eye, mydriasis, corneal edema, and eventual blindness from optic nerve damage. Acute glaucoma is an emergency requiring rapid IOP reduction with agents like mannitol and topical drugs.
- Atopic dermatitis (canine)
- Genetic predisposition to allergic skin disease from environmental allergens, causing pruritus at the face, paws, ears, and ventrum, often with secondary infection. Managed with allergen avoidance, immunotherapy, and targeted antipruritics.
- Flea allergy dermatitis
- Hypersensitivity to flea saliva and the most common canine allergic skin disease, causing intense pruritus over the dorsal lumbosacral region and tail base. A single flea bite can trigger signs, so strict year-round flea control is key.
- Superficial bacterial pyoderma
- Bacterial skin infection (usually Staphylococcus pseudintermedius) producing papules, pustules, and epidermal collars. Confirm with cytology; treat the underlying allergy and use topical antiseptics plus appropriate systemic antibiotics when needed.
- Dermatophytosis (ringworm)
- Zoonotic fungal infection (Microsporum, Trichophyton) causing alopecia and scaling, sometimes fluorescing under a Wood's lamp. Confirm by fungal culture or PCR; treat with systemic and topical antifungals plus environmental decontamination.
- Dental prophylaxis and periodontal disease
- Plaque/calculus drive gingivitis and then irreversible periodontitis with attachment loss. A complete oral exam, charting, and cleaning are done under general anesthesia with full-mouth dental radiographs to assess subgingival disease.
- Feline tooth resorption
- Common, painful odontoclastic destruction of tooth structure at or below the gumline in cats, often with a 'red spot' of inflamed gingiva. Dental radiographs guide treatment; affected teeth usually require extraction.
- Estrous cycle stages
- Proestrus (follicular growth, bloody discharge), estrus (standing/receptive, ovulation in most species), diestrus (corpus luteum/progesterone), and anestrus (reproductive quiescence). Timing AI by progesterone and LH improves conception.
- Pregnancy diagnosis methods
- Options include abdominal palpation, ultrasound (detects fetal heartbeats and viability), radiography (after fetal mineralization, to count fetuses near term), and hormone assays such as relaxin in dogs/cats.
- Dystocia
- Difficult or obstructed birth from maternal (uterine inertia, narrow pelvis) or fetal (oversize, malposition) causes. Management ranges from medical (calcium, oxytocin if the cervix is open and no obstruction) to cesarean section.
- Retained fetal membranes (cattle)
- Failure to expel the placenta within about 24 hours of calving, risking metritis. Risk factors include dystocia, twins, milk fever, and selenium deficiency; do not forcibly remove, and treat systemic illness rather than the membranes alone.
- Neonatal isoerythrolysis
- Maternal antibodies in colostrum destroy a neonate's red cells when blood types are incompatible, classically in foals (mare anti-foal antibodies) and some kittens. Prevent by colostrum management; treat with supportive care and compatible transfusion.
- Shock and the SIRS response
- Inadequate tissue perfusion (hypovolemic, distributive/septic, cardiogenic, obstructive). Signs include tachycardia, weak pulses, pale mucous membranes, prolonged CRT, and altered mentation; treat the cause and restore perfusion.
- Crystalloid vs colloid fluids
- Isotonic crystalloids (LRS, Plasma-Lyte, 0.9% saline) redistribute into the interstitium and are first-line for rehydration/resuscitation. Colloids stay intravascular longer; their use is more selective due to coagulation and kidney concerns.
- Fluid therapy components
- Replacing the deficit (percent dehydration times body weight), maintenance needs, and ongoing losses, while choosing a fluid that fits the patient's acid-base and electrolyte status. Reassess body weight, urine output, and perfusion frequently.
- Dehydration assessment
- Estimated by skin turgor, mucous membrane moisture, eye position, and CRT; clinical signs appear at about 5 percent, and 10 to 12 percent indicates impending shock. PCV/total solids and lactate help quantify and trend hydration.
- CPR / RECOVER basics
- Recognize arrest quickly, start high-quality chest compressions (about 100 to 120 per minute, one-third to one-half chest width) with minimal interruptions, ventilate, and follow algorithms for epinephrine and rhythm-based treatment.
- Body condition score (BCS)
- A subjective scale (commonly 1 to 9) assessing fat cover over ribs, waist, and abdominal tuck. About 5 of 9 is ideal; obesity (high scores) is a common, treatable contributor to many diseases.
- Equine dental floating
- Filing sharp enamel points on cheek teeth that develop because the upper arcade is wider than the lower. Sharp points cause buccal/lingual ulcers, quidding, and poor body condition; routine floating maintains an even occlusal surface.
- Polioencephalomalacia (PEM)
- Cerebrocortical necrosis in ruminants linked to thiamine deficiency or high sulfur intake, causing blindness, head pressing, and seizures. Early, high-dose thiamine can be both treatment and a diagnostic response.
- Left displaced abomasum (LDA)
- The abomasum fills with gas and displaces to the left body wall, common in early-lactation dairy cows. Auscultation with percussion gives a high-pitched 'ping' on the left; correct by rolling/toggle or surgical abomasopexy.
- Traumatic reticuloperitonitis (hardware disease)
- Ingested metal perforates the reticulum, causing localized peritonitis with reluctance to move, a grunt on the withers test, and a drop in milk. Prevention is a rumen magnet; treatment may include antibiotics or surgery.
- Tetanus
- Clostridium tetani toxin causes spastic paralysis, a 'sawhorse' stance, third-eyelid prolapse, and lockjaw. Treatment includes antitoxin, wound debridement, penicillin, and muscle relaxation; horses are highly susceptible and routinely vaccinated.
- Equine Cushing's disease (PPID)
- Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in older horses causing a long, non-shedding hair coat (hypertrichosis), laminitis, and muscle loss. Diagnose with resting ACTH or a TRH stimulation test; treat with pergolide.
- Equine metabolic syndrome (EMS)
- Insulin dysregulation with regional adiposity and a high risk of laminitis, often in 'easy keeper' breeds. Management centers on diet (limiting nonstructural carbohydrates), weight loss, and exercise.
- Bovine viral diarrhea (BVDV)
- Pestivirus causing diarrhea, immunosuppression, and reproductive loss; in-utero infection creates immunotolerant persistently infected (PI) animals that shed virus for life. Control combines PI identification/removal, biosecurity, and vaccination.
- Johne's disease (paratuberculosis)
- Chronic Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis enteritis of adult ruminants causing progressive weight loss with normal appetite and 'pipe-stream' diarrhea in cattle. No effective treatment; control by testing, culling, and calf hygiene.
- Hypocalcemia (eclampsia) in the bitch
- Postpartum hypocalcemia in small-breed nursing dams causing restlessness, panting, tremors, and tetany/seizures. Treat with slow IV calcium gluconate (monitoring the heart) and often wean or supplement the puppies.
- Pancreatitis (canine)
- Inflammation of the pancreas causing vomiting, anorexia, and cranial abdominal pain, often after a high-fat meal. Diagnose with clinical signs, specific lipase (cPLI/Spec cPL), and ultrasound; treat with fluids, analgesia, and early enteral nutrition.
- Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
- Chronic GI inflammation causing vomiting, diarrhea, and weight loss; a diagnosis of exclusion confirmed by biopsy after ruling out parasites, infection, and diet. Managed with diet trials, sometimes antibiotics, and immunosuppression.
- Portosystemic shunt
- Abnormal vessel bypassing the liver, causing hepatic encephalopathy (especially after meals), stunted growth, and ammonium biurate crystals. Diagnose with bile acids and imaging; manage diet/lactulose and consider surgical attenuation.
- Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (feline)
- Most common feline heart disease, with thickened left ventricular walls predisposing to congestive heart failure and aortic thromboembolism (saddle thrombus). Screen with echocardiography; NT-proBNP can help triage at-risk cats.
- Dilated cardiomyopathy (canine)
- Poor systolic function with chamber dilation, common in large breeds (Dobermans, Great Danes); some cases link to diet (taurine/grain-free). Signs include arrhythmias, syncope, and congestive heart failure.
- Mitral valve degeneration (endocardiosis)
- Most common canine acquired heart disease, especially in small breeds, producing a left apical systolic murmur and eventual left-sided congestive heart failure. Staged by ACVIM guidelines; pimobendan is used once the heart is enlarged.
- Otitis externa
- Inflammation of the external ear canal, usually secondary to allergy, with secondary Malassezia or bacterial overgrowth. Ear cytology guides treatment; rule out a ruptured tympanic membrane before using certain topical drugs.
- Seizure first-line management
- Stabilize, control active seizures with a benzodiazepine (diazepam/midazolam), and pursue maintenance with phenobarbital or levetiracetam if indicated. Status epilepticus is an emergency; also screen for metabolic and toxic causes.
- Vestibular disease
- Causes a head tilt, nystagmus, and ataxia. Peripheral disease (e.g., otitis media/interna, idiopathic 'old dog') spares conscious proprioception; central disease may add other cranial nerve deficits and altered mentation.
- Cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture
- Common cause of hindlimb lameness in dogs, producing a positive cranial drawer/tibial-thrust sign and often secondary meniscal injury. Surgical stabilization (e.g., TPLO) is favored in larger dogs.
- Hip dysplasia
- Developmental coxofemoral laxity leading to osteoarthritis, with hindlimb lameness, a 'bunny-hopping' gait, and a positive Ortolani sign in young dogs. Management ranges from weight control and rehab to surgery.
- Mammary neoplasia
- Common in intact bitches and queens; about half of canine mammary tumors are malignant, while the majority of feline mammary tumors are malignant. Early ovariohysterectomy markedly lowers risk in dogs.
- Lymphoma (canine)
- Common hematopoietic malignancy, most often multicentric with generalized peripheral lymphadenopathy. Diagnosed by cytology/flow/PARR; multi-agent chemotherapy (CHOP) gives the best remission rates.
- Mast cell tumor
- Common cutaneous tumor with variable behavior; degranulation can cause local swelling/erythema (Darier sign) and GI ulceration from histamine. Grade and stage guide therapy; avoid rough handling that triggers degranulation.
- Insulinoma
- Functional beta-cell tumor secreting insulin and causing hypoglycemic episodes (weakness, seizures) with an inappropriately high insulin during low glucose. Manage with frequent feeding, surgery, and diazoxide or prednisone.
- Splenic hemangiosarcoma
- Aggressive vascular tumor that may rupture and cause acute hemoabdomen and collapse, classically in older large-breed dogs. Stabilize the bleed, but the prognosis is guarded due to early metastasis.
- Equine strangles (Streptococcus equi)
- Contagious upper respiratory disease with fever, nasal discharge, and abscessed submandibular/retropharyngeal lymph nodes. Guttural pouch empyema can create carriers; isolate cases and screen recovered horses before mixing.
- Selenium / vitamin E deficiency (white muscle disease)
- Nutritional myodegeneration of young ruminants and foals in deficient regions, causing stiffness, weakness, and elevated CK/AST; cardiac forms can be sudden death. Prevent and treat with selenium/vitamin E supplementation.
- Copper deficiency and toxicity in sheep
- Sheep are uniquely sensitive: deficiency causes 'swayback' and poor wool, while excess copper accumulates in the liver and releases suddenly to cause a hemolytic crisis with hemoglobinuria. Avoid cattle/horse feeds high in copper.
- Pregnancy toxemia (ovine/caprine ketosis)
- Late-gestation negative energy balance in ewes/does carrying multiple fetuses, causing ketosis, weakness, and neurologic signs. Treat with energy support (propylene glycol, dextrose) and consider inducing parturition or cesarean.
- Avian respiratory anatomy
- Birds have air sacs and a unidirectional flow-through respiratory system; the syrinx (not a larynx) is the voice organ. Their efficient gas exchange makes them very sensitive to inhaled toxins such as PTFE/Teflon fumes.
- Egg binding (dystocia) in birds
- Failure to pass an egg, causing tail bobbing, straining, and a palpable coelomic mass; risk factors include hypocalcemia, obesity, and malnutrition. Provide warmth, calcium, fluids, and lubrication; severe cases may need ovocentesis.
- Reptile metabolic bone disease
- Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism from low dietary calcium, poor calcium-to-phosphorus ratio, and inadequate UVB/vitamin D3, causing soft bones, swollen jaws, and fractures. Correct husbandry, diet, and UVB exposure.
- Rabbit GI stasis
- Slowing or cessation of gut motility, often secondary to pain, stress, or a low-fiber diet, causing anorexia and reduced fecal output. Treat the underlying cause with analgesia, fluids, motility support, and assisted feeding of fiber.
- Ferret adrenal disease
- Common in neutered ferrets, causing symmetric alopecia, pruritus, and vulvar swelling from sex-steroid excess. Distinguish from hyperestrogenism of intact jills; treat surgically or with deslorelin implants.
- Blood transfusion compatibility
- Dogs are usually DEA-typed (DEA 1 most important; a first transfusion is often tolerated, later ones need a cross-match). Cats have A, B, and AB types with naturally occurring alloantibodies, so cats must always be blood-typed before transfusion.
- Coagulation testing (PT vs aPTT)
- PT assesses the extrinsic and common pathways (sensitive to factor VII, prolonged early in rodenticide toxicosis); aPTT assesses the intrinsic and common pathways. Both prolong with severe vitamin K antagonism or DIC.
- Anion gap and metabolic acidosis
- A high anion gap acidosis comes from added acids (lactate, ketones, ethylene glycol metabolites, uremia). Normal-gap (hyperchloremic) acidosis comes from bicarbonate loss such as severe diarrhea or renal tubular acidosis.
- Hypoglycemia causes
- Common causes include sepsis, insulinoma, xylitol or insulin overdose, hepatic failure (including portosystemic shunt), neonatal/toy-breed states, and hunting-dog hypoglycemia. Treat acutely with dextrose and find the underlying cause.
- Pyelonephritis
- Ascending or hematogenous bacterial infection of the kidney causing fever, renal pain, and pyuria with bacteriuria. It requires a longer course of antibiotics than simple cystitis, guided by urine culture and sensitivity.
- Megaesophagus
- Dilated, hypomotile esophagus causing regurgitation (not vomiting) and aspiration pneumonia risk. Causes include idiopathic, myasthenia gravis, and others; manage with upright feeding and treating any underlying disease.
- Foreign body / GI obstruction
- Ingested material obstructing the GI tract, causing vomiting, anorexia, and pain; linear foreign bodies (string, especially in cats) anchor at the tongue base or pylorus and can plicate and perforate intestine. Imaging guides surgical decisions.
- Aspiration pneumonia
- Lung inflammation/infection from inhaled material (regurgitation, megaesophagus, sedation), classically affecting cranioventral lung lobes. Treat with oxygen, broad-spectrum antibiotics, and supportive care while addressing the cause.
- Heat stroke (hyperthermia)
- Non-pyrogenic core temperature elevation from heat or exertion (brachycephalics at high risk), risking organ failure, DIC, and death. Cool actively toward about 39.4C/103F, give fluids and oxygen, and monitor for complications.
- Thrombocytopenia
- A low platelet count causing petechiae, ecchymoses, and mucosal bleeding. Common causes include immune-mediated destruction (ITP), tick-borne disease, DIC, and bone-marrow suppression; severe drops below ~30,000/uL risk spontaneous hemorrhage.
- Core vs non-core vaccines (dogs)
- Core canine vaccines (recommended for all dogs) are distemper, adenovirus, parvovirus, and rabies. Non-core vaccines (Leptospira, Bordetella, Lyme, parainfluenza) are given based on the individual dog's exposure risk.
- Core vs non-core vaccines (cats)
- Core feline vaccines are panleukopenia, herpesvirus-1, calicivirus, and rabies; FeLV is core for kittens. Non-core vaccines such as Chlamydia and Bordetella are based on lifestyle and exposure.
- Rabies vaccination importance
- Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease, so vaccination is legally mandated for dogs and cats in most jurisdictions and protects both animal and public health. Exposure protocols depend on the animal's vaccination status.
- Maternal antibody interference
- Colostral antibodies protect neonates but also neutralize vaccine antigen, creating a 'window of susceptibility.' This is why puppy/kitten series are boosted every 2 to 4 weeks until about 16 weeks of age.
- Bovine and equine core vaccines
- Cattle programs commonly target IBR, BVD, PI3, BRSV, leptospirosis, and clostridial diseases (blackleg). Horse core vaccines per AAEP are rabies, tetanus, EEE/WEE, and West Nile virus.
- Vaccine-associated sarcoma (feline)
- Rare aggressive soft-tissue tumor that can develop at an injection site in cats. Standardized injection-site protocols and the '3-2-1 rule' (mass present over 3 months, over 2 cm, or still growing 1 month later warrants biopsy) guide vigilance.
- Strategic deworming and refugia
- Targeted parasite control using fecal egg counts and the FAMACHA score (in small ruminants) rather than blanket treatment. Preserving a population of unexposed parasites (refugia) slows anthelmintic resistance.
- Heartworm prevention protocol
- Year-round monthly preventive plus annual antigen testing is recommended even in seasonal climates, because of incomplete dosing and shifting mosquito ranges. Test before starting prevention to avoid reactions in microfilaremic dogs.
- Herd health program
- A preventive, records-driven approach managing nutrition, reproduction, vaccination, biosecurity, and disease surveillance at the population level. The goal is to optimize productivity and welfare while reducing individual sick-animal events.
- Biosecurity principles
- Practices that prevent the introduction and spread of pathogens: isolation/quarantine of new or sick animals, traffic and visitor control, sanitation/disinfection, and vector and rodent management. Critical on farms and in hospitals.
- Quarantine of new arrivals
- Isolating incoming animals (commonly 2 to 4 weeks) and testing before mixing them with a resident herd or hospital population. It prevents introduction of infectious diseases such as BVDV-PI cattle or respiratory pathogens.
- Zoonosis
- A disease transmissible between animals and humans. Veterinarians have a central public-health role in recognizing, reporting, and preventing zoonoses through diagnosis, vaccination, and client education ('One Health').
- Leptospirosis (zoonotic)
- Spirochete shed in urine (often via wildlife/rodents and contaminated water) causing renal and hepatic disease in dogs and a flu-like, sometimes severe illness in people. Vaccinate at-risk dogs and use precautions with infected patients.
- Brucellosis (zoonotic)
- Bacterial disease causing abortion and infertility in animals and undulant fever in humans. Brucella canis (dogs) and livestock species are reportable; it is a recognized occupational hazard for veterinarians and producers.
- Toxoplasmosis
- Coccidian (Toxoplasma gondii) with cats as the definitive host shedding oocysts. Of public-health concern in pregnant and immunocompromised people; risk reduction includes daily litter-box cleaning, cooking meat, and hand hygiene.
- Salmonellosis
- Zoonotic enteric bacteria spread by feces and contaminated feed/food, including reptiles, poultry, and raw pet diets. Veterinarians counsel on handwashing, hygiene, and risk to children and immunocompromised people.
- Rabies post-exposure considerations
- After a bite, management depends on the biting animal's species, vaccination status, and availability for observation or testing. Veterinarians follow public-health rules for quarantine, euthanasia/testing, and human post-exposure prophylaxis referral.
- Food safety and HACCP
- Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points is a systematic approach to identify and control biological, chemical, and physical hazards in food production. Veterinarians safeguard the food supply through inspection and disease control.
- Drug residues and withdrawal times
- The required interval between treating a food animal and slaughter/milk sale so drug residues fall below tolerance. Honoring extra-label withdrawal times (via FARAD) protects consumers and is a core public-health duty.
- Antimicrobial stewardship
- Using antimicrobials judiciously to preserve efficacy and limit resistance: confirm a bacterial infection, choose the narrowest effective drug, dose/duration correctly, and avoid using medically important antibiotics for growth promotion.
- Five Freedoms of animal welfare
- A welfare framework: freedom from hunger/thirst; from discomfort; from pain, injury, or disease; to express normal behavior; and from fear and distress. It anchors assessment of an animal's quality of life and care standards.
- Five Domains model
- A modern welfare framework expanding the Five Freedoms into nutrition, environment, health, behavior, and the resulting mental/affective state. It emphasizes promoting positive experiences, not just minimizing harms.
- Euthanasia principles
- A humane death achieved with minimal pain, fear, and distress, following AVMA guidelines on appropriate methods, agents, and confirmation of death (e.g., IV pentobarbital with sedation as needed). Method choice depends on species and setting.
- Pentobarbital euthanasia and carcass disposal
- Barbiturate euthanasia solution persists in tissues and can poison scavengers and relay species; carcasses must be disposed of properly (rendering exclusions, deep burial, or incineration) to prevent secondary toxicosis.
- Pain assessment and recognition
- Recognizing pain through species-specific behavior and validated scales (e.g., grimace scales, Glasgow scale) is a welfare obligation. Untreated pain delays healing and worsens outcomes, so analgesia is part of standard care.
- Nutritional assessment as a vital sign
- Evaluating diet history, body and muscle condition scores, and feeding practices at every visit. It helps prevent and manage obesity, malnutrition, and diet-related disease across species.
- Foreign animal / reportable diseases
- Diseases like foot-and-mouth, classical/African swine fever, and highly pathogenic avian influenza must be reported immediately to animal-health authorities. Early recognition by practitioners protects the national herd and economy.
- Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI)
- Reportable, often fatal poultry disease with zoonotic potential, marked by sudden high mortality, swelling, and cyanosis. Suspicion triggers immediate notification, biosecurity, and depopulation/movement controls.
- Vector-borne disease prevention
- Controlling ticks, fleas, and mosquitoes prevents diseases like Lyme, ehrlichiosis, anaplasmosis, and heartworm. Year-round parasiticides plus environmental management reduce both animal disease and zoonotic risk.
- Colostrum management and passive transfer
- Neonatal ruminants and foals need adequate, timely, high-quality colostrum for immune protection. Failure of passive transfer (low serum IgG) raises infection and mortality risk; assess by serum IgG or total protein and supplement when needed.
- Client communication fundamentals
- Clear, empathetic, two-way exchange of information that builds trust and adherence. Core skills include open-ended questions, active listening, checking understanding, and avoiding jargon when explaining diagnoses and plans.
- Informed consent
- The client's voluntary agreement to a procedure after understanding the diagnosis, options, risks, benefits, costs, and alternatives, including no treatment. It is both an ethical duty and a legal protection, ideally documented.
- Spectrum of care
- Offering a range of acceptable diagnostic and treatment options across cost levels, rather than only a 'gold standard,' so care fits the client's circumstances while still meeting the patient's needs and welfare.
- Breaking bad news
- Delivering difficult information (terminal diagnosis, poor prognosis) with empathy: prepare the setting, warn the client, give information in small chunks, allow silence, and respond to emotions before discussing next steps.
- End-of-life and quality-of-life discussions
- Helping clients weigh quality of life using assessment tools and honest prognoses, and supporting timely, humane euthanasia decisions. Validate the human-animal bond and acknowledge anticipatory grief.
- Pet loss grief support
- Recognizing that grief over a pet's death is real and can be intense; respond with acknowledgment, non-judgment, and resources such as grief lines or counseling. Avoid dismissive language and respect the client's process.
- Discussing cost and estimates
- Proactively presenting written estimates and payment options is part of transparent communication, not a barrier. Framing cost alongside options (spectrum of care) supports informed, financially feasible decisions.
- Motivational interviewing for adherence
- A collaborative, client-centered style that explores and resolves ambivalence to support behavior change (e.g., weight loss, dental care, chronic-disease management). It improves compliance more than simply giving directives.
- Interprofessional / team communication
- Clear, respectful information sharing among veterinarians, technicians, and staff, including structured handoffs and speaking up about safety. Good team communication reduces medical errors and improves patient outcomes.
- Handling client conflict and complaints
- Listening without becoming defensive, acknowledging the client's concern, apologizing where appropriate, and focusing on solutions. De-escalation preserves the relationship and reduces complaints and litigation.
- Communicating medical uncertainty
- Honestly conveying that diagnoses can be probabilistic and outcomes uncertain, while still giving a plan and clear recheck/return criteria. Transparency about what is and isn't known maintains trust.
- Teach-back and confirming understanding
- Asking the client to restate instructions (medication, home care, warning signs) in their own words to confirm comprehension. It catches misunderstandings and improves treatment adherence.
- Discussing zoonotic and public-health risk with clients
- Plainly explaining how diseases like leptospirosis, ringworm, or Salmonella can affect the household, especially children, pregnant, or immunocompromised members, and giving practical prevention steps.
- Communicating with food-animal producers
- Framing recommendations in terms of herd productivity, economics, and regulatory compliance (e.g., withdrawal times) while still safeguarding welfare and public health. The 'client' is a business as well as an animal owner.
- Cultural competence in client communication
- Recognizing that beliefs, values, and resources vary, and adapting communication without judgment. Respecting cultural context improves trust, decision-making, and adherence.
- Documenting client communication
- Recording what was discussed, the options offered, consent given or declined (including declined recommendations), and instructions provided. It supports continuity of care and protects against miscommunication and liability.
- Veterinarian-client-patient relationship (VCPR)
- The legal/ethical basis for practicing medicine and prescribing: the veterinarian assumes responsibility, has sufficient knowledge of the patient through examination/visits, and is available for follow-up. A valid VCPR is required to dispense prescription drugs.
- Veterinary medical ethics
- Standards guiding professional conduct, balancing duties to the patient, client, profession, and society (e.g., the AVMA Principles of Veterinary Medical Ethics). Confidentiality, honesty, and competence are core obligations.
- Medical records as legal documents
- Records must be accurate, timely, and legible; they are legal documents and the standard of evidence in disputes. Many jurisdictions require retention for several years and entitle clients to copies of their animal's records.
- Controlled substance regulations (DEA)
- Veterinarians who handle controlled drugs need DEA registration, must store them securely, keep accurate logs/inventories, and follow schedule-specific prescribing rules. Diversion and recordkeeping failures carry serious legal penalties.
- Extra-label drug use (AMDUCA)
- The Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act allows extra-label use of approved drugs by a veterinarian within a valid VCPR, with conditions. It prohibits certain drugs in food animals and requires extended withdrawal times (consult FARAD).
- Confidentiality and its limits
- Patient/client information is confidential, but it may be disclosed when required by law (reportable diseases, public-health threats, court order) or with client consent. Suspected animal abuse may also trigger reporting duties in some jurisdictions.
- Negligence and standard of care
- Malpractice requires a duty, a breach of the accepted standard of care, causation, and damages. Practicing to the current standard, documenting well, and obtaining informed consent are the best defenses.
- Professional licensure and scope of practice
- Veterinarians must hold a state/provincial license and practice within their legal scope; technicians and assistants work under defined supervision. Practicing without a license or beyond scope is illegal and unethical.
- Conflict of interest and transparency
- Financial incentives (product sales, referrals) must not override the patient's best interest or the client's right to unbiased advice. Disclosing relevant interests preserves trust and professional integrity.
- Practice economics fundamentals
- Sustainable practice requires understanding revenue, cost of goods, inventory, and pricing of professional services. Fair, transparent fees fund quality care, staff wages, and equipment while keeping the business viable.
- Inventory and pharmacy management
- Controlling drug and supply stock to prevent stockouts, waste from expiration, and theft. Proper logs are also a regulatory requirement for controlled substances and prescription drugs.
- Professional wellbeing and burnout
- Veterinary professionals face high rates of burnout, compassion fatigue, and psychological distress. Recognizing warning signs and building support, boundaries, and self-care is a professional and safety issue, not a weakness.
- Compassion fatigue and moral distress
- Emotional exhaustion from repeated exposure to suffering, euthanasia, and difficult financial/ethical situations ('economic euthanasia'). Peer support, debriefing, and mental-health resources help mitigate it.
- Reporting obligations (abuse, reportable disease)
- Veterinarians may be legally mandated to report suspected animal cruelty/abuse and must report certain diseases to authorities. These duties balance confidentiality against patient welfare and public health.
