Your FREE MCAT Flashcards 2026 – 300+ Cards

472–528 total, with each of the 4 sections scored 118–132 (midpoint 500/125).

The mitochondria — site of the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain, making most ATP.

Glycolysis (cytoplasm) → pyruvate oxidation → Krebs cycle → electron transport chain (mitochondria). Total ≈ 30–32 ATP/glucose.

The cytoplasm. Glucose (6C) splits into 2 pyruvate, netting 2 ATP and 2 NADH; no oxygen required.

Oxygen (O₂). It accepts spent electrons and combines with H⁺ to form water in oxidative phosphorylation.

Mitosis makes 2 identical diploid cells (growth/repair). Meiosis makes 4 unique haploid gametes (reproduction) via 2 divisions.

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (after interphase); cytokinesis splits the cytoplasm.

DNA replication — the cell copies its genome so each daughter cell receives a full set of chromosomes.

DNA → (transcription) → RNA → (translation) → protein. Information flows from gene to functional product.

The nucleus. RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA from a DNA template; it is then processed and exported.

At ribosomes in the cytoplasm (or on the rough ER). tRNA delivers amino acids matching mRNA codons.

Start: AUG (methionine). Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA — no amino acid; they terminate translation.

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids from the ER into vesicles for secretion or delivery.

Membrane-bound organelles full of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules, debris, and worn organelles.

Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes/processes proteins; smooth ER makes lipids, stores Ca²⁺, and detoxifies.

Body → vena cava → RA → tricuspid → RV → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary vein → LA → mitral → LV → aorta → body.

Left = Bicuspid (mitral), Right = Tricuspid — the two atrioventricular valves.

The left ventricle — it pumps oxygenated blood out the aorta to the whole body against high pressure.

The left side. The right side handles deoxygenated blood; the pulmonary vessels are the famous exceptions.

The kidney's functional unit — it filters blood and forms urine via filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Bowman's capsule → proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal tubule → collecting duct.

Increases water reabsorption in the collecting duct, concentrating urine and conserving body water.

Increases Na⁺ (and water) reabsorption and K⁺ secretion in the distal nephron, raising blood pressure.

About −70 mV, maintained by the Na⁺/K⁺ pump (3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in) and leak channels.

Depolarization to threshold (~ −55 mV) opens voltage-gated Na⁺ channels, causing a rapid spike.

Action potentials jumping node to node between myelin sheaths, greatly speeding nerve conduction.

Sympathetic = 'fight or flight' (raises heart rate). Parasympathetic = 'rest and digest' (lowers it).

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood; exocrine glands secrete via ducts (e.g., sweat, saliva).

Insulin lowers blood glucose (uptake/storage); glucagon raises it (glycogen breakdown). Both from the pancreas.

A response that opposes the initial change to restore homeostasis — e.g., thermoregulation, blood glucose control.

Each parent's two alleles separate during gamete formation, so each gamete carries one allele per gene.

Alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation (genes on separate chromosomes).

Genotype is the genetic makeup (alleles); phenotype is the observable trait it produces.

Homozygous = two identical alleles (AA or aa); heterozygous = two different alleles (Aa).

p + q = 1 and p² + 2pq + q² = 1, where p² and q² are homozygotes and 2pq the heterozygotes.

No mutation, no migration, no selection, random mating, and a large population. Violation means evolution.

Crossing over (prophase I), independent assortment, and random fertilization.

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes have both. Bacteria are prokaryotes.

An inducible bacterial gene cluster for lactose metabolism; allolactose inactivates the repressor to allow transcription.

Lytic: replicate and burst the host. Lysogenic: integrate as a prophage and lie dormant until induced.

Innate is fast and nonspecific (barriers, phagocytes); adaptive is slower, specific, and has memory (B and T cells).

B cells make antibodies (humoral immunity); T cells coordinate/kill infected cells (cell-mediated immunity).

Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (lactate, glycerol, amino acids), mainly in the liver.

Exchanges gases, nutrients, and wastes between mother and fetus, and secretes hormones (hCG, progesterone).

Zygote → cleavage → blastula → gastrula (forms 3 germ layers) → organogenesis.

Ectoderm (skin/nervous system), mesoderm (muscle/bone/blood), endoderm (gut/lung lining).

Spermatogenesis makes 4 sperm per cell continuously; oogenesis makes 1 egg (+ polar bodies) cyclically.

FSH grows the follicle; the LH surge triggers ovulation. Both come from the anterior pituitary.

Lactate from anaerobic muscle travels to the liver, is converted to glucose, and returns to muscle.

Anaerobic regeneration of NAD⁺ so glycolysis can continue — producing lactate (animals) or ethanol + CO₂ (yeast).

Skeletal: striated, voluntary. Cardiac: striated, involuntary, has intercalated discs. Smooth: nonstriated, involuntary.

Muscle contracts as actin slides over myosin, pulling Z-lines together; Ca²⁺ and ATP are required.

Reduces surface tension in alveoli, preventing their collapse and easing inflation.

Higher CO₂/lower pH shifts hemoglobin's O₂ curve right, releasing more oxygen to active tissues.

Detoxification, bile production, glycogen storage, plasma protein synthesis, and urea formation.

Programmed cell death — a controlled, ATP-dependent process for development and removing damaged cells.

Inducible operons are normally off and turn on with an inducer; repressible operons are on and turn off with a corepressor.

20 standard amino acids, each with the same backbone but a unique R-group (side chain).

pH = pKa + log([A⁻]/[HA]). At the half-equivalence point, pH = pKa.

Primary (sequence), secondary (α-helices/β-sheets), tertiary (3D fold), quaternary (multiple subunits).

Hydrogen bonds between backbone amide and carbonyl groups — forming α-helices and β-pleated sheets.

An amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the next, releasing water.

Glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine (and proline) are nonpolar — they bury in the protein core.

Lysine, arginine, and histidine. Histidine's pKa near 6 makes it key in enzyme active sites.

Aspartate and glutamate — their carboxylic acid side chains are deprotonated at physiological pH.

The pH at which a molecule has no net charge. For an amino acid, pI is the average of the two relevant pKa values.

v = (Vmax[S])/(Km + [S]). It describes the rate of an enzyme reaction versus substrate concentration.

The substrate concentration at half Vmax — an inverse measure of an enzyme's affinity (low Km = high affinity).

A double-reciprocal plot (1/v vs 1/[S]); y-intercept = 1/Vmax, x-intercept = −1/Km. Linearizes Michaelis-Menten.

Increases apparent Km; Vmax unchanged. The inhibitor competes at the active site and is overcome by more substrate.

Decreases Vmax; Km unchanged. The inhibitor binds an allosteric site regardless of substrate.

The end product of a pathway inhibits an upstream enzyme, preventing overproduction (allosteric regulation).

Cofactors are nonprotein helpers; inorganic ones are metal ions, organic ones (often vitamin-derived) are coenzymes (e.g., NAD⁺).

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) — the key regulatory, committed step; inhibited by ATP and citrate.

Per glucose: 2 ATP (net) and 2 NADH; 2 pyruvate are produced.

The mitochondrial matrix. One acetyl-CoA yields 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, 1 GTP, and 2 CO₂ per turn.

A proton gradient that drives ATP synthase (chemiosmosis); most cellular ATP is made here.

Glycogenesis builds glycogen from glucose; glycogenolysis breaks glycogen down to release glucose.

The breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA units in the mitochondria, feeding the Krebs cycle for energy.

Saturated have no C=C double bonds (solid, packed tightly); unsaturated have C=C kinks (liquid, less dense).

A polar phosphate head and two nonpolar fatty-acid tails — amphipathic, so it forms bilayers in water.

Hydrophobic tails cluster away from water while hydrophilic heads face it, minimizing free energy.

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Glycosidic links sugars; peptide links amino acids; phosphodiester links nucleotides in DNA/RNA.

DNA: deoxyribose, thymine, double-stranded. RNA: ribose, uracil, usually single-stranded.

Purines (A, G) are double-ringed; pyrimidines (C, T, U) are single-ringed. 'PURe As Gold.'

A pairs with T (2 H-bonds), G pairs with C (3 H-bonds); so %A = %T and %G = %C.

A protein with covalently attached carbohydrate chains — important in cell recognition and signaling.

The activation energy of a reaction, speeding it without being consumed or changing the equilibrium.

Binding at a site other than the active site changes enzyme shape/activity (activation or inhibition).

O₂ binding to one subunit increases affinity of the others, giving a sigmoidal binding curve.

The maximum reaction rate when an enzyme is saturated with substrate; proportional to enzyme concentration.

NADPH (for biosynthesis) and ribose-5-phosphate (for nucleotides). It runs in the cytoplasm.

An electron donor for biosynthesis (fatty acids, etc.) and antioxidant defense — distinct from NADH's catabolic role.

Substrate-level transfers a phosphate directly to ADP; oxidative uses the ETC proton gradient and ATP synthase.

Loss of a protein's 3D structure (and function) from heat, pH, or chemicals — the primary sequence stays intact.

mRNA (codons/message), tRNA (carries amino acids), rRNA (ribosome structure and catalysis).

Transfers a phosphate group from ATP to a substrate (phosphorylation), often regulating activity.

Removes a phosphate group (dephosphorylation) — often reversing a kinase's effect.

The cell's energy currency; hydrolysis of its high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds powers cellular work.

Horizontal lines point toward the viewer, vertical lines away; D/L sugars are assigned by the bottom chiral center.

PV = nRT, where R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K (or 8.314 J/mol·K). Use absolute temperature in kelvin.

pH = −log[H⁺]. Below 7 is acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic; pH + pOH = 14 at 25°C.

Strong acids fully dissociate (HCl, H₂SO₄); weak acids only partly dissociate and have a characteristic Ka.

The acid dissociation constant; a larger Ka (smaller pKa) means a stronger acid that dissociates more.

A system at equilibrium shifts to partly offset an imposed change in concentration, pressure, or temperature.

Keq = [products]/[reactants] at equilibrium (with coefficients as exponents); >1 favors products, <1 favors reactants.

It speeds both forward and reverse rates equally — reaching equilibrium faster but not changing its position.

A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base that resists pH change; works best within ±1 pH of its pKa.

Oxidation Is Loss of electrons; Reduction Is Gain. They always occur together in a redox reaction.

The oxidizing agent is reduced (gains e⁻); the reducing agent is oxidized (loses e⁻).

Reduction happens at the cathode; oxidation at the anode. ('Red Cat, An Ox.')

Galvanic: spontaneous, generates current (ΔG<0). Electrolytic: nonspontaneous, driven by external current (ΔG>0).

ΔG = ΔH − TΔS. ΔG<0 is spontaneous, ΔG>0 nonspontaneous, ΔG=0 at equilibrium.

Negative ΔG = spontaneous (exergonic); positive ΔG = nonspontaneous (endergonic).

Energy is conserved: ΔU = q − w. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transferred.

The entropy of an isolated system tends to increase; spontaneous processes increase total disorder.

Endothermic absorbs heat (ΔH>0); exothermic releases heat (ΔH<0).

The total enthalpy change of a reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its steps (a state function).

Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution.

M₁V₁ = M₂V₂ — moles of solute stay constant when you add solvent.

6.02×10²³ particles (Avogadro's number); the bridge between mass (grams) and number of particles.

Balance the equation, convert grams to moles, apply the mole (coefficient) ratio, then convert back.

The reactant that runs out first; it caps how much product can form. Excess reactant is left over.

At constant T, P ∝ 1/V (P₁V₁ = P₂V₂). Squeezing a gas raises its pressure.

At constant P, V ∝ T (V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂), with T in kelvin. Heating a gas expands it.

Properties depending on particle count, not identity: boiling-point elevation, freezing-point depression, osmotic pressure, vapor-pressure lowering.

Increases up and to the right of the periodic table; fluorine is most electronegative.

Increases down a group and to the left across a period (more shells, less effective nuclear pull).

Increases up and to the right — it's hardest to remove an electron from a small, electron-greedy atom.

Ionic = electron transfer between metal and nonmetal (large ΔEN); covalent = electron sharing between nonmetals.

Polar has unequal electron sharing (moderate ΔEN, a dipole); nonpolar shares electrons equally (ΔEN ≈ 0).

Tetrahedral, 109.5° bond angles (e.g., CH₄). Lone pairs compress these angles.

sp = linear (2 groups), sp² = trigonal planar (3 groups), sp³ = tetrahedral (4 groups).

Hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > London dispersion forces. All are weaker than covalent bonds.

The principal quantum number n gives the energy level/shell and relative size of an orbital.

Electrons fill degenerate orbitals singly with parallel spins before pairing up.

No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers; an orbital holds at most 2 (opposite spins).

You cannot simultaneously know an electron's exact position and momentum.

The time for half of a sample to decay or react; for first-order processes it is constant (t½ = 0.693/k).

rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ. The exponents (orders) are found experimentally, not from coefficients.

Higher temperature increases rate by giving more molecules energy ≥ the activation energy (Arrhenius).

The minimum energy needed to start a reaction; catalysts lower it by providing an alternate pathway.

The equilibrium constant for a slightly soluble salt dissolving; higher Ksp means greater solubility.

Adding an ion already in a salt's equilibrium decreases its solubility (Le Chatelier shift).

Percent yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%.

SN1 is first-order (rate = k[substrate]); SN2 is second-order (rate = k[substrate][nucleophile]).

Tertiary (3°) carbons via a carbocation; gives racemization. Favored by polar protic solvents and weak nucleophiles.

Primary (1°)/methyl carbons; concerted backside attack inverts configuration. Needs a strong nucleophile and polar aprotic solvent.

E1 is stepwise via a carbocation (first-order); E2 is concerted, needs a strong base, and is anti-periplanar (second-order).

In electrophilic addition to an alkene, H adds to the carbon with more H's, forming the more stable carbocation.

A carbon bonded to four different groups; it makes the molecule non-superimposable on its mirror image.

Enantiomers are mirror images (all stereocenters differ); diastereomers differ at some but not all stereocenters.

Identical physical properties except they rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions (optical activity).

Rank substituents by Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority; lowest points away. Clockwise = R, counterclockwise = S.

A 50:50 mix of two enantiomers; it is optically inactive because the rotations cancel.

−COOH. Acidic; named with '-oic acid.' Found in fatty acids and amino acids.

Aldehyde has a carbonyl at a chain end (−CHO, '-al'); ketone has it internal (R-CO-R, '-one').

Ester (R-CO-O-R) smells fruity; amide (R-CO-N) has the peptide-bond linkage and is more stable.

Carboxylic acid > ester > amide > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine — highest gets the suffix.

A cyclic, planar, fully conjugated ring with 4n+2 π electrons (e.g., benzene with 6) is unusually stable.

Electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) — it substitutes rather than adds, preserving aromaticity.

An aldehyde, then (with a strong oxidant) a carboxylic acid. Secondary alcohols give ketones.

A nucleophile is electron-rich and donates an electron pair; an electrophile is electron-poor and accepts one.

Functional groups by bond vibrations — e.g., a broad ~3300 cm⁻¹ O-H, a sharp ~1700 cm⁻¹ C=O.

A strong, sharp absorption near 1700 cm⁻¹ — diagnostic of aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters.

A broad absorption around 3200–3550 cm⁻¹.

The number, environment, and neighbors of hydrogens — via chemical shift, integration, and splitting (n+1 rule).

A proton with n equivalent neighboring protons splits into n+1 peaks.

A more deshielded proton (near electronegative atoms or π systems), appearing at higher ppm.

Molecules with the same formula but different connectivity (e.g., butane vs isobutane).

Cis = same side of a double bond/ring; trans = opposite sides. They have different properties.

A rapid equilibrium between a keto form (C=O) and an enol form (C=C-OH); the keto form usually dominates.

Delocalization of electrons across multiple structures; the true molecule is a stabilized hybrid.

An organomagnesium (R-MgX) that acts as a strong nucleophile/base, adding R to carbonyls to form alcohols.

An enolate attacks another carbonyl to form a β-hydroxy carbonyl, which can dehydrate to an α,β-unsaturated product.

A carboxylic acid + alcohol, acid-catalyzed, form an ester plus water (reversible).

Base hydrolysis of an ester (or fat) into a carboxylate salt (soap) and an alcohol.

3° > 2° > 1° > methyl — more alkyl groups donate electron density and hyperconjugation.

Protic (water, alcohols) H-bond to nucleophiles and favor SN1/E1; aprotic (acetone, DMSO) favor SN2.

A group that departs with the bonding electrons; good ones are stable/weak bases (e.g., I⁻, Br⁻, tosylate).

Alternating single/double bonds delocalize electrons, lowering energy and shifting UV/Vis absorption.

Addition of H₂ across a C=C (often with a Pt/Pd/Ni catalyst), reducing an alkene to an alkane.

H and Br add across the double bond following Markovnikov's rule (H to the more-substituted carbon's neighbor).

By how many other carbons it's bonded to: 1° (one), 2° (two), 3° (three).

One in which the stereochemistry of the reactant determines the stereochemistry of the product (e.g., SN2).

F = ma — net force equals mass times acceleration. Force in newtons (N = kg·m/s²).

An object stays at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a net external force (inertia).

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction force on the other object.

Velocity is the rate of change of position (m/s); acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (m/s²).

Final velocity from initial velocity, acceleration, and time (constant acceleration).

Displacement under constant acceleration from initial velocity, time, and acceleration.

Horizontal and vertical motions are independent; horizontal velocity is constant, vertical accelerates at g.

About 9.8 m/s² downward (acceleration due to gravity).

W = Fd·cosθ — force times displacement times the cosine of the angle between them. Unit: joule.

KE = ½mv². Doubling speed quadruples kinetic energy.

PE = mgh — mass times g times height above a reference point.

Without friction, KE + PE is constant; energy converts between forms but the total stays the same.

P = W/t = Fv. Unit: watt (W = J/s). Power is the rate of doing work.

p = mv — mass times velocity (a vector). Conserved in the absence of external forces.

Impulse = FΔt = Δp. A force over time changes momentum.

Both conserve momentum; elastic also conserves kinetic energy, inelastic does not (objects may stick).

a = v²/r, directed toward the center; it keeps an object in circular motion.

F = −kx — a spring's restoring force is proportional to its displacement from equilibrium.

T = 2π√(L/g) — depends on length and gravity, not on mass or (small) amplitude.

ρ = m/V (mass per volume). Water is ~1000 kg/m³ (1 g/cm³).

P = F/A — force per unit area. Unit: pascal (Pa = N/m²).

Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally throughout (basis of hydraulics).

The buoyant force equals the weight of fluid displaced; an object floats if it's less dense than the fluid.

In flowing fluid, faster speed means lower pressure (energy conservation along a streamline).

A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ — a narrower pipe makes incompressible fluid flow faster (flow rate is constant).

V = IR — voltage equals current times resistance.

P = IV = I²R = V²/R. Unit: watt.

Series add directly (R = R₁+R₂); parallel add as reciprocals (1/R = 1/R₁+1/R₂), giving less total resistance.

Opposite of resistors: parallel add directly; series add as reciprocals.

F = kq₁q₂/r² — the electrostatic force between charges; like charges repel, opposite attract.

E = kq/r², pointing away from positive and toward negative charge. Unit: N/C or V/m.

v = fλ — speed equals frequency times wavelength.

f = 1/T. Frequency is cycles per second (Hz); period is seconds per cycle.

Transverse oscillates perpendicular to travel (light); longitudinal oscillates parallel (sound).

In-phase waves add (constructive); out-of-phase waves cancel (destructive).

Observed frequency rises as a source approaches and falls as it recedes (a shift in perceived pitch).

Sound ≈ 343 m/s in air; light ≈ 3×10⁸ m/s in vacuum. Light needs no medium.

n₁sinθ₁ = n₂sinθ₂ — light bends toward the normal entering a denser (higher-n) medium.

n = c/v — how much a medium slows light. Higher n means slower light and more bending.

Above a critical angle, light hitting a less-dense medium reflects entirely (basis of fiber optics).

Converging (convex) focuses light to a real image; diverging (concave) spreads it, making a virtual image.

1/f = 1/do + 1/di — relates focal length to object and image distances.

m = −di/do = hi/ho. Negative m means an inverted image; |m|>1 means enlarged.

Conduction (contact), convection (fluid motion), and radiation (electromagnetic waves).

The heat to raise 1 g of a substance by 1°C (Q = mcΔT). Water's high value resists temperature change.

Light above a threshold frequency ejects electrons from a metal — evidence that light is quantized (photons).

E = hf = hc/λ — proportional to frequency; h is Planck's constant.

The time for half of a radioactive sample to decay; constant for a given isotope.

Alpha = He nucleus (least penetrating); beta = electron/positron; gamma = high-energy photon (most penetrating).

Logarithmic; every +10 dB is a tenfold increase in sound intensity.

Learning by pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until it triggers a conditioned response (Pavlov).

Learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences — reinforcement increases it, punishment decreases it (Skinner).

Positive adds a pleasant stimulus; negative removes an unpleasant one. Both increase behavior.

Reinforcement increases a behavior; punishment decreases it. Each can be positive (add) or negative (remove).

Variable-ratio (unpredictable number of responses) — it produces high, steady, extinction-resistant responding.

Sensory memory → short-term/working memory → long-term memory (via encoding and consolidation).

Explicit (declarative) is conscious facts/events; implicit (procedural) is skills and conditioned responses.

Better recall of the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list than the middle.

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational — cognitive development from infancy to adolescence.

Knowing objects exist when out of sight; it develops in the sensorimotor stage.

Identity vs role confusion — adolescents work to form a coherent sense of self.

Preconventional (punishment/reward), conventional (social rules), postconventional (abstract principles).

Id (desires), ego (reality), superego (morality). The ego mediates between the id and superego.

The 'fight or flight' response — raises heart rate, dilates pupils, releases epinephrine.

Physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization.

Linked to reward, motivation, and movement; implicated in Parkinson's (low) and schizophrenia (excess activity).

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite; low levels are associated with depression.

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter — it reduces neuronal excitability and calms the brain.

Processes emotion, especially fear and the response to threatening stimuli.

Forms new long-term (declarative) memories and supports spatial navigation.

Executive functions — planning, decision-making, impulse control, and personality.

Broca's (frontal) = speech production; Wernicke's (temporal) = language comprehension.

James-Lange: bodily arousal causes emotion. Cannon-Bard: arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.

Emotion = physiological arousal + a cognitive label of that arousal based on context.

Absolute = minimum stimulus detectable 50% of the time; difference (JND) = smallest detectable change.

The just-noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus, not a fixed amount.

How we detect stimuli amid noise, influenced by both sensitivity and response bias (hits, misses, false alarms).

Top-down uses prior knowledge/expectations; bottom-up builds perception from raw sensory data.

Stereotype = belief; prejudice = attitude/feeling; discrimination = behavior. Cognition, affect, action.

Overattributing others' behavior to their character and underweighting situational causes.

Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs/actions, motivating attitude change to reduce it (Festinger).

Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking for it.

REM sleep — marked by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and muscle atonia.

~24-hour biological cycles (e.g., sleep-wake) regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus and influenced by light/melatonin.

A heuristic is a fast mental shortcut (sometimes biased); an algorithm is a step-by-step method guaranteeing a solution.

Availability judges by how easily examples come to mind; representativeness judges by similarity to a prototype.

Type theories sort people into categories; trait theories rate continuous dimensions (e.g., the Big Five).

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Positive add experiences (hallucinations, delusions); negative subtract (flat affect, avolition).

UCS triggers a natural UCR; after pairing, a CS triggers a learned CR (e.g., bell → salivation).

Learning by watching and imitating others (Bandura's social learning; the Bobo doll study).

Sensation is detecting raw stimuli; perception is the brain's organization and interpretation of them.

Information is retained better when study is spread over time rather than massed (crammed).

Behavior is motivated to reduce internal tension from unmet biological needs, restoring homeostasis.

Performance peaks at moderate arousal; too little or too much arousal impairs it (an inverted U).

Anomie — a breakdown of social norms and regulation; foundational to functionalist sociology.

Functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Society is a system of interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability (Durkheim).

Society is shaped by competition over scarce resources and power, producing inequality (Marx).

Society emerges from everyday interactions and shared meanings/symbols (micro-level; Mead, Goffman).

The bourgeoisie own the means of production; the proletariat sell their labor. Class conflict drives change.

Emphasized rationalization, bureaucracy, and the role of ideas (the Protestant ethic) in social life.

The lifelong process of learning a society's norms, values, and roles (family is the primary agent).

Primary groups are small and intimate (family, close friends); secondary groups are larger and goal-oriented.

An enduring structure meeting basic needs — e.g., family, education, religion, government, the economy.

Ascribed status is assigned at birth (e.g., race); achieved status is earned through actions (e.g., a profession).

Role conflict is tension between different roles; role strain is tension within a single role.

A society's hierarchical ranking of people into layers based on wealth, power, and prestige.

Caste is closed and ascribed (little mobility); class is more open and allows social mobility.

Movement between social positions — intergenerational (across generations) or intragenerational (within a lifetime).

Absolute poverty is lacking basic necessities; relative poverty is being poor compared to others in society.

Non-financial assets (education, tastes, skills) that confer social advantage (Bourdieu).

A system in which rewards are based on individual talent and effort rather than inherited status.

A shift from high birth/death rates to low ones as a society industrializes, changing population growth.

Push factors drive people from an area (war, famine); pull factors attract them to another (jobs, safety).

The growing concentration of population in cities, often tied to industrialization.

Gemeinschaft = close, traditional community ties; Gesellschaft = impersonal, modern, goal-driven relationships (Tönnies).

A state of normlessness where social norms weaken or conflict, often during rapid change (Durkheim).

Deviance arises because society labels acts (or people) as deviant, which can become a self-fulfilling identity.

Ritzer's idea that the fast-food model's efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control spread through institutions.

A belief or expectation that causes its own fulfillment through people's behavior.

An in-group is one a person identifies with; an out-group is one seen as 'other,' often with bias.

Formal (laws, sanctions) and informal (norms, peer pressure) means a society uses to enforce conformity.

The increasing interconnection of economies, cultures, and populations across national borders.

Differences in health outcomes and access across social groups, often tied to socioeconomic status and race.

Answer only from the passage. The right choice is supported by the text; outside knowledge is a trap.

Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills — reading comprehension and reasoning, with no outside science knowledge required.

Foundations of Comprehension, Reasoning Within the Text, and Reasoning Beyond the Text.

53 questions on 9 passages in 90 minutes, drawn from the humanities and social sciences.

Pick the choice that captures the whole passage's central argument, not just one supporting detail.

Choose the conclusion the passage logically supports; reject answers that add unstated facts or overreach.

Bringing in outside knowledge or opinion. Every correct answer must be grounded in the passage itself.

Find the answer that most directly supports or undermines the author's specific argument as stated.

Use word choice and connotation; watch for hedging, criticism, or endorsement signaled by the language.

The correct answer is the one that is false or unsupported; three choices will be true per the passage.

Apply the passage's principle to a new scenario; pick the option most consistent with the author's logic.

About 10 minutes per passage; don't over-invest in one. Answer every question — there's no guessing penalty.