Your FREE MCAT Flashcards 2026 – 300+ Cards

MCAT Flashcards

MCAT score range?

472–528 total, with each of the 4 sections scored 118–132 (midpoint 500/125).

Powerhouse of the cell?

The mitochondria — site of the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain, making most ATP.

How many amino acids are proteinogenic?

20 standard amino acids, each with the same backbone but a unique R-group (side chain).

Ideal gas law?

PV = nRT, where R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K (or 8.314 J/mol·K). Use absolute temperature in kelvin.

Newton's second law?

F = ma — net force equals mass times acceleration. Force in newtons (N = kg·m/s²).

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until it triggers a conditioned response (Pavlov).

SN1 vs SN2 — rate order?

SN1 is first-order (rate = k[substrate]); SN2 is second-order (rate = k[substrate][nucleophile]).

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?

pH = pKa + log([A⁻]/[HA]). At the half-equivalence point, pH = pKa.

Durkheim's key concept?

Anomie — a breakdown of social norms and regulation; foundational to functionalist sociology.

CARS — golden rule?

Answer only from the passage. The right choice is supported by the text; outside knowledge is a trap.

Steps of aerobic respiration?

Glycolysis (cytoplasm) → pyruvate oxidation → Krebs cycle → electron transport chain (mitochondria). Total ≈ 30–32 ATP/glucose.

Where does glycolysis occur?

The cytoplasm. Glucose (6C) splits into 2 pyruvate, netting 2 ATP and 2 NADH; no oxygen required.

Final electron acceptor in the ETC?

Oxygen (O₂). It accepts spent electrons and combines with H⁺ to form water in oxidative phosphorylation.

Mitosis vs meiosis?

Mitosis makes 2 identical diploid cells (growth/repair). Meiosis makes 4 unique haploid gametes (reproduction) via 2 divisions.

Phases of mitosis (PMAT)?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (after interphase); cytokinesis splits the cytoplasm.

What happens in S phase?

DNA replication — the cell copies its genome so each daughter cell receives a full set of chromosomes.

Central dogma of molecular biology?

DNA → (transcription) → RNA → (translation) → protein. Information flows from gene to functional product.

Where does transcription occur in eukaryotes?

The nucleus. RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA from a DNA template; it is then processed and exported.

Where does translation occur?

At ribosomes in the cytoplasm (or on the rough ER). tRNA delivers amino acids matching mRNA codons.

Start and stop codons?

Start: AUG (methionine). Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA — no amino acid; they terminate translation.

Function of the Golgi apparatus?

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids from the ER into vesicles for secretion or delivery.

Function of lysosomes?

Membrane-bound organelles full of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules, debris, and worn organelles.

Rough vs smooth ER?

Rough ER (ribosome-studded) makes/processes proteins; smooth ER makes lipids, stores Ca²⁺, and detoxifies.

Path of blood through the heart?

Body → vena cava → RA → tricuspid → RV → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary vein → LA → mitral → LV → aorta → body.

LAB RAT (heart valves)?

Left = Bicuspid (mitral), Right = Tricuspid — the two atrioventricular valves.

Strongest chamber of the heart?

The left ventricle — it pumps oxygenated blood out the aorta to the whole body against high pressure.

Which side of the heart carries oxygenated blood?

The left side. The right side handles deoxygenated blood; the pulmonary vessels are the famous exceptions.

Function of the nephron?

The kidney's functional unit — it filters blood and forms urine via filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Order of nephron flow?

Bowman's capsule → proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal tubule → collecting duct.

Role of ADH (vasopressin)?

Increases water reabsorption in the collecting duct, concentrating urine and conserving body water.

Role of aldosterone?

Increases Na⁺ (and water) reabsorption and K⁺ secretion in the distal nephron, raising blood pressure.

Resting membrane potential of a neuron?

About −70 mV, maintained by the Na⁺/K⁺ pump (3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in) and leak channels.

What triggers an action potential?

Depolarization to threshold (~ −55 mV) opens voltage-gated Na⁺ channels, causing a rapid spike.

Saltatory conduction?

Action potentials jumping node to node between myelin sheaths, greatly speeding nerve conduction.

Sympathetic vs parasympathetic?

Sympathetic = 'fight or flight' (raises heart rate). Parasympathetic = 'rest and digest' (lowers it).

Endocrine vs exocrine glands?

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood; exocrine glands secrete via ducts (e.g., sweat, saliva).

Insulin vs glucagon?

Insulin lowers blood glucose (uptake/storage); glucagon raises it (glycogen breakdown). Both from the pancreas.

Negative feedback loop?

A response that opposes the initial change to restore homeostasis — e.g., thermoregulation, blood glucose control.

Mendel's law of segregation?

Each parent's two alleles separate during gamete formation, so each gamete carries one allele per gene.

Mendel's law of independent assortment?

Alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation (genes on separate chromosomes).

Genotype vs phenotype?

Genotype is the genetic makeup (alleles); phenotype is the observable trait it produces.

Homozygous vs heterozygous?

Homozygous = two identical alleles (AA or aa); heterozygous = two different alleles (Aa).

Hardy-Weinberg equations?

p + q = 1 and p² + 2pq + q² = 1, where p² and q² are homozygotes and 2pq the heterozygotes.

Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

No mutation, no migration, no selection, random mating, and a large population. Violation means evolution.

Sources of genetic variation in meiosis?

Crossing over (prophase I), independent assortment, and random fertilization.

Prokaryote vs eukaryote?

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes have both. Bacteria are prokaryotes.

What is the lac operon?

An inducible bacterial gene cluster for lactose metabolism; allolactose inactivates the repressor to allow transcription.

Stages of viral lytic vs lysogenic cycle?

Lytic: replicate and burst the host. Lysogenic: integrate as a prophage and lie dormant until induced.

Innate vs adaptive immunity?

Innate is fast and nonspecific (barriers, phagocytes); adaptive is slower, specific, and has memory (B and T cells).

B cells vs T cells?

B cells make antibodies (humoral immunity); T cells coordinate/kill infected cells (cell-mediated immunity).

What is gluconeogenesis?

Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (lactate, glycerol, amino acids), mainly in the liver.

Function of the placenta?

Exchanges gases, nutrients, and wastes between mother and fetus, and secretes hormones (hCG, progesterone).

Stages of embryonic development?

Zygote → cleavage → blastula → gastrula (forms 3 germ layers) → organogenesis.

Three germ layers and a derivative of each?

Ectoderm (skin/nervous system), mesoderm (muscle/bone/blood), endoderm (gut/lung lining).

Spermatogenesis vs oogenesis?

Spermatogenesis makes 4 sperm per cell continuously; oogenesis makes 1 egg (+ polar bodies) cyclically.

Role of FSH and LH in the menstrual cycle?

FSH grows the follicle; the LH surge triggers ovulation. Both come from the anterior pituitary.

Cori cycle?

Lactate from anaerobic muscle travels to the liver, is converted to glucose, and returns to muscle.

What is fermentation?

Anaerobic regeneration of NAD⁺ so glycolysis can continue — producing lactate (animals) or ethanol + CO₂ (yeast).

Skeletal vs cardiac vs smooth muscle?

Skeletal: striated, voluntary. Cardiac: striated, involuntary, has intercalated discs. Smooth: nonstriated, involuntary.

Sliding filament theory?

Muscle contracts as actin slides over myosin, pulling Z-lines together; Ca²⁺ and ATP are required.

Function of surfactant in the lungs?

Reduces surface tension in alveoli, preventing their collapse and easing inflation.

What is the Bohr effect?

Higher CO₂/lower pH shifts hemoglobin's O₂ curve right, releasing more oxygen to active tissues.

Function of the liver (3 examples)?

Detoxification, bile production, glycogen storage, plasma protein synthesis, and urea formation.

What is apoptosis?

Programmed cell death — a controlled, ATP-dependent process for development and removing damaged cells.

Operon regulation: inducible vs repressible?

Inducible operons are normally off and turn on with an inducer; repressible operons are on and turn off with a corepressor.

Four levels of protein structure?

Primary (sequence), secondary (α-helices/β-sheets), tertiary (3D fold), quaternary (multiple subunits).

What stabilizes secondary structure?

Hydrogen bonds between backbone amide and carbonyl groups — forming α-helices and β-pleated sheets.

What is a peptide bond?

An amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of the next, releasing water.

The three nonpolar aliphatic amino acids to remember?

Glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine (and proline) are nonpolar — they bury in the protein core.

Which amino acids are positively charged (basic)?

Lysine, arginine, and histidine. Histidine's pKa near 6 makes it key in enzyme active sites.

Which amino acids are negatively charged (acidic)?

Aspartate and glutamate — their carboxylic acid side chains are deprotonated at physiological pH.

What is the isoelectric point (pI)?

The pH at which a molecule has no net charge. For an amino acid, pI is the average of the two relevant pKa values.

Michaelis-Menten equation?

v = (Vmax[S])/(Km + [S]). It describes the rate of an enzyme reaction versus substrate concentration.

What does Km represent?

The substrate concentration at half Vmax — an inverse measure of an enzyme's affinity (low Km = high affinity).

What does a Lineweaver-Burk plot show?

A double-reciprocal plot (1/v vs 1/[S]); y-intercept = 1/Vmax, x-intercept = −1/Km. Linearizes Michaelis-Menten.

Competitive inhibition — effect on Km and Vmax?

Increases apparent Km; Vmax unchanged. The inhibitor competes at the active site and is overcome by more substrate.

Noncompetitive inhibition — effect on Km and Vmax?

Decreases Vmax; Km unchanged. The inhibitor binds an allosteric site regardless of substrate.

Feedback inhibition?

The end product of a pathway inhibits an upstream enzyme, preventing overproduction (allosteric regulation).

What is a cofactor vs coenzyme?

Cofactors are nonprotein helpers; inorganic ones are metal ions, organic ones (often vitamin-derived) are coenzymes (e.g., NAD⁺).

Rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis?

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) — the key regulatory, committed step; inhibited by ATP and citrate.

Net ATP/NADH of glycolysis?

Per glucose: 2 ATP (net) and 2 NADH; 2 pyruvate are produced.

Where does the Krebs cycle occur?

The mitochondrial matrix. One acetyl-CoA yields 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, 1 GTP, and 2 CO₂ per turn.

What does the electron transport chain produce?

A proton gradient that drives ATP synthase (chemiosmosis); most cellular ATP is made here.

Glycogenesis vs glycogenolysis?

Glycogenesis builds glycogen from glucose; glycogenolysis breaks glycogen down to release glucose.

What is beta-oxidation?

The breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA units in the mitochondria, feeding the Krebs cycle for energy.

Saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids?

Saturated have no C=C double bonds (solid, packed tightly); unsaturated have C=C kinks (liquid, less dense).

Structure of a phospholipid?

A polar phosphate head and two nonpolar fatty-acid tails — amphipathic, so it forms bilayers in water.

Why do phospholipids form a bilayer?

Hydrophobic tails cluster away from water while hydrophilic heads face it, minimizing free energy.

What are the four major biomolecules?

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Glycosidic vs peptide vs phosphodiester bond?

Glycosidic links sugars; peptide links amino acids; phosphodiester links nucleotides in DNA/RNA.

DNA vs RNA — three differences?

DNA: deoxyribose, thymine, double-stranded. RNA: ribose, uracil, usually single-stranded.

Purines vs pyrimidines?

Purines (A, G) are double-ringed; pyrimidines (C, T, U) are single-ringed. 'PURe As Gold.'

Chargaff's rules / base pairing?

A pairs with T (2 H-bonds), G pairs with C (3 H-bonds); so %A = %T and %G = %C.

What is a glycoprotein?

A protein with covalently attached carbohydrate chains — important in cell recognition and signaling.

Enzymes lower what?

The activation energy of a reaction, speeding it without being consumed or changing the equilibrium.

Allosteric regulation?

Binding at a site other than the active site changes enzyme shape/activity (activation or inhibition).

Cooperativity in hemoglobin?

O₂ binding to one subunit increases affinity of the others, giving a sigmoidal binding curve.

What is Vmax?

The maximum reaction rate when an enzyme is saturated with substrate; proportional to enzyme concentration.

Pentose phosphate pathway — main products?

NADPH (for biosynthesis) and ribose-5-phosphate (for nucleotides). It runs in the cytoplasm.

What is the role of NADPH?

An electron donor for biosynthesis (fatty acids, etc.) and antioxidant defense — distinct from NADH's catabolic role.

Substrate-level vs oxidative phosphorylation?

Substrate-level transfers a phosphate directly to ADP; oxidative uses the ETC proton gradient and ATP synthase.

What is denaturation?

Loss of a protein's 3D structure (and function) from heat, pH, or chemicals — the primary sequence stays intact.

Three types of RNA in translation?

mRNA (codons/message), tRNA (carries amino acids), rRNA (ribosome structure and catalysis).

What does a kinase do?

Transfers a phosphate group from ATP to a substrate (phosphorylation), often regulating activity.

What does a phosphatase do?

Removes a phosphate group (dephosphorylation) — often reversing a kinase's effect.

What is the role of ATP?

The cell's energy currency; hydrolysis of its high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds powers cellular work.

Fischer projection — how is chirality shown?

Horizontal lines point toward the viewer, vertical lines away; D/L sugars are assigned by the bottom chiral center.

Define pH.

pH = −log[H⁺]. Below 7 is acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic; pH + pOH = 14 at 25°C.

Strong vs weak acid?

Strong acids fully dissociate (HCl, H₂SO₄); weak acids only partly dissociate and have a characteristic Ka.

What is Ka?

The acid dissociation constant; a larger Ka (smaller pKa) means a stronger acid that dissociates more.

Le Chatelier's principle?

A system at equilibrium shifts to partly offset an imposed change in concentration, pressure, or temperature.

Equilibrium constant Keq — meaning?

Keq = [products]/[reactants] at equilibrium (with coefficients as exponents); >1 favors products, <1 favors reactants.

Effect of a catalyst on equilibrium?

It speeds both forward and reverse rates equally — reaching equilibrium faster but not changing its position.

What is a buffer?

A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base that resists pH change; works best within ±1 pH of its pKa.

Oxidation vs reduction (OIL RIG)?

Oxidation Is Loss of electrons; Reduction Is Gain. They always occur together in a redox reaction.

Oxidizing vs reducing agent?

The oxidizing agent is reduced (gains e⁻); the reducing agent is oxidized (loses e⁻).

Cathode vs anode?

Reduction happens at the cathode; oxidation at the anode. ('Red Cat, An Ox.')

Galvanic vs electrolytic cell?

Galvanic: spontaneous, generates current (ΔG<0). Electrolytic: nonspontaneous, driven by external current (ΔG>0).

Gibbs free energy equation?

ΔG = ΔH − TΔS. ΔG<0 is spontaneous, ΔG>0 nonspontaneous, ΔG=0 at equilibrium.

ΔG and spontaneity?

Negative ΔG = spontaneous (exergonic); positive ΔG = nonspontaneous (endergonic).

First law of thermodynamics?

Energy is conserved: ΔU = q − w. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transferred.

Second law of thermodynamics?

The entropy of an isolated system tends to increase; spontaneous processes increase total disorder.

Endothermic vs exothermic?

Endothermic absorbs heat (ΔH>0); exothermic releases heat (ΔH<0).

Hess's law?

The total enthalpy change of a reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its steps (a state function).

Molarity formula?

Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution.

Dilution equation?

M₁V₁ = M₂V₂ — moles of solute stay constant when you add solvent.

What is a mole?

6.02×10²³ particles (Avogadro's number); the bridge between mass (grams) and number of particles.

Steps of stoichiometry?

Balance the equation, convert grams to moles, apply the mole (coefficient) ratio, then convert back.

Limiting reactant — what is it?

The reactant that runs out first; it caps how much product can form. Excess reactant is left over.

Boyle's law?

At constant T, P ∝ 1/V (P₁V₁ = P₂V₂). Squeezing a gas raises its pressure.

Charles's law?

At constant P, V ∝ T (V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂), with T in kelvin. Heating a gas expands it.

Colligative properties?

Properties depending on particle count, not identity: boiling-point elevation, freezing-point depression, osmotic pressure, vapor-pressure lowering.

What is electronegativity trend?

Increases up and to the right of the periodic table; fluorine is most electronegative.

Atomic radius trend?

Increases down a group and to the left across a period (more shells, less effective nuclear pull).

Ionization energy trend?

Increases up and to the right — it's hardest to remove an electron from a small, electron-greedy atom.

Ionic vs covalent bond?

Ionic = electron transfer between metal and nonmetal (large ΔEN); covalent = electron sharing between nonmetals.

Polar vs nonpolar covalent bond?

Polar has unequal electron sharing (moderate ΔEN, a dipole); nonpolar shares electrons equally (ΔEN ≈ 0).

VSEPR — shape of 4 bonding pairs?

Tetrahedral, 109.5° bond angles (e.g., CH₄). Lone pairs compress these angles.

Hybridization sp, sp², sp³?

sp = linear (2 groups), sp² = trigonal planar (3 groups), sp³ = tetrahedral (4 groups).

Three intermolecular forces, strongest first?

Hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > London dispersion forces. All are weaker than covalent bonds.

Quantum numbers — what does n give?

The principal quantum number n gives the energy level/shell and relative size of an orbital.

Hund's rule?

Electrons fill degenerate orbitals singly with parallel spins before pairing up.

Pauli exclusion principle?

No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers; an orbital holds at most 2 (opposite spins).

Heisenberg uncertainty principle?

You cannot simultaneously know an electron's exact position and momentum.

What is half-life?

The time for half of a sample to decay or react; for first-order processes it is constant (t½ = 0.693/k).

Rate law form?

rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ. The exponents (orders) are found experimentally, not from coefficients.

Effect of temperature on reaction rate?

Higher temperature increases rate by giving more molecules energy ≥ the activation energy (Arrhenius).

What is activation energy?

The minimum energy needed to start a reaction; catalysts lower it by providing an alternate pathway.

Solubility product Ksp — meaning?

The equilibrium constant for a slightly soluble salt dissolving; higher Ksp means greater solubility.

Common-ion effect?

Adding an ion already in a salt's equilibrium decreases its solubility (Le Chatelier shift).

Percent yield formula?

Percent yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%.

SN1 best substrate and stereochemistry?

Tertiary (3°) carbons via a carbocation; gives racemization. Favored by polar protic solvents and weak nucleophiles.

SN2 best substrate and stereochemistry?

Primary (1°)/methyl carbons; concerted backside attack inverts configuration. Needs a strong nucleophile and polar aprotic solvent.

E1 vs E2 elimination?

E1 is stepwise via a carbocation (first-order); E2 is concerted, needs a strong base, and is anti-periplanar (second-order).

Markovnikov's rule?

In electrophilic addition to an alkene, H adds to the carbon with more H's, forming the more stable carbocation.

What is a chiral center?

A carbon bonded to four different groups; it makes the molecule non-superimposable on its mirror image.

Enantiomers vs diastereomers?

Enantiomers are mirror images (all stereocenters differ); diastereomers differ at some but not all stereocenters.

What are enantiomers' properties?

Identical physical properties except they rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions (optical activity).

R vs S configuration — how assigned?

Rank substituents by Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority; lowest points away. Clockwise = R, counterclockwise = S.

What is a racemic mixture?

A 50:50 mix of two enantiomers; it is optically inactive because the rotations cancel.

Functional group: carboxylic acid?

−COOH. Acidic; named with '-oic acid.' Found in fatty acids and amino acids.

Functional group: aldehyde vs ketone?

Aldehyde has a carbonyl at a chain end (−CHO, '-al'); ketone has it internal (R-CO-R, '-one').

Functional group: ester vs amide?

Ester (R-CO-O-R) smells fruity; amide (R-CO-N) has the peptide-bond linkage and is more stable.

Functional group priority for naming (high)?

Carboxylic acid > ester > amide > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine — highest gets the suffix.

What is aromaticity (Hückel's rule)?

A cyclic, planar, fully conjugated ring with 4n+2 π electrons (e.g., benzene with 6) is unusually stable.

Benzene's characteristic reaction?

Electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) — it substitutes rather than adds, preserving aromaticity.

Oxidation of a primary alcohol gives?

An aldehyde, then (with a strong oxidant) a carboxylic acid. Secondary alcohols give ketones.

What is a nucleophile vs electrophile?

A nucleophile is electron-rich and donates an electron pair; an electrophile is electron-poor and accepts one.

What does IR spectroscopy identify?

Functional groups by bond vibrations — e.g., a broad ~3300 cm⁻¹ O-H, a sharp ~1700 cm⁻¹ C=O.

Key IR peak: carbonyl (C=O)?

A strong, sharp absorption near 1700 cm⁻¹ — diagnostic of aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters.

Key IR peak: O-H of an alcohol?

A broad absorption around 3200–3550 cm⁻¹.

What does ¹H NMR tell you?

The number, environment, and neighbors of hydrogens — via chemical shift, integration, and splitting (n+1 rule).

NMR splitting (n+1 rule)?

A proton with n equivalent neighboring protons splits into n+1 peaks.

Downfield NMR shift means?

A more deshielded proton (near electronegative atoms or π systems), appearing at higher ppm.

What is a constitutional (structural) isomer?

Molecules with the same formula but different connectivity (e.g., butane vs isobutane).

Cis vs trans (geometric isomers)?

Cis = same side of a double bond/ring; trans = opposite sides. They have different properties.

Keto-enol tautomerism?

A rapid equilibrium between a keto form (C=O) and an enol form (C=C-OH); the keto form usually dominates.

What is resonance?

Delocalization of electrons across multiple structures; the true molecule is a stabilized hybrid.

What is a Grignard reagent?

An organomagnesium (R-MgX) that acts as a strong nucleophile/base, adding R to carbonyls to form alcohols.

Aldol condensation?

An enolate attacks another carbonyl to form a β-hydroxy carbonyl, which can dehydrate to an α,β-unsaturated product.

Esterification (Fischer)?

A carboxylic acid + alcohol, acid-catalyzed, form an ester plus water (reversible).

Saponification?

Base hydrolysis of an ester (or fat) into a carboxylate salt (soap) and an alcohol.

What is a carbocation stability order?

3° > 2° > 1° > methyl — more alkyl groups donate electron density and hyperconjugation.

Polar protic vs aprotic solvent?

Protic (water, alcohols) H-bond to nucleophiles and favor SN1/E1; aprotic (acetone, DMSO) favor SN2.

What is a leaving group?

A group that departs with the bonding electrons; good ones are stable/weak bases (e.g., I⁻, Br⁻, tosylate).

Conjugation — why does it matter?

Alternating single/double bonds delocalize electrons, lowering energy and shifting UV/Vis absorption.

What is hydrogenation?

Addition of H₂ across a C=C (often with a Pt/Pd/Ni catalyst), reducing an alkene to an alkane.

Electrophilic addition to alkene with HBr?

H and Br add across the double bond following Markovnikov's rule (H to the more-substituted carbon's neighbor).

Distinguish primary, secondary, tertiary carbon?

By how many other carbons it's bonded to: 1° (one), 2° (two), 3° (three).

What is a stereospecific reaction?

One in which the stereochemistry of the reactant determines the stereochemistry of the product (e.g., SN2).

Newton's first law?

An object stays at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a net external force (inertia).

Newton's third law?

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction force on the other object.

Kinematics: velocity vs acceleration?

Velocity is the rate of change of position (m/s); acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (m/s²).

Equation v = v₀ + at — what is it?

Final velocity from initial velocity, acceleration, and time (constant acceleration).

Equation Δx = v₀t + ½at²?

Displacement under constant acceleration from initial velocity, time, and acceleration.

Projectile motion key idea?

Horizontal and vertical motions are independent; horizontal velocity is constant, vertical accelerates at g.

Value of g near Earth's surface?

About 9.8 m/s² downward (acceleration due to gravity).

Work formula?

W = Fd·cosθ — force times displacement times the cosine of the angle between them. Unit: joule.

Kinetic energy formula?

KE = ½mv². Doubling speed quadruples kinetic energy.

Gravitational potential energy?

PE = mgh — mass times g times height above a reference point.

Conservation of mechanical energy?

Without friction, KE + PE is constant; energy converts between forms but the total stays the same.

Power formula?

P = W/t = Fv. Unit: watt (W = J/s). Power is the rate of doing work.

Momentum formula?

p = mv — mass times velocity (a vector). Conserved in the absence of external forces.

Impulse-momentum theorem?

Impulse = FΔt = Δp. A force over time changes momentum.

Elastic vs inelastic collision?

Both conserve momentum; elastic also conserves kinetic energy, inelastic does not (objects may stick).

Centripetal acceleration?

a = v²/r, directed toward the center; it keeps an object in circular motion.

Hooke's law?

F = −kx — a spring's restoring force is proportional to its displacement from equilibrium.

Period of a simple pendulum?

T = 2π√(L/g) — depends on length and gravity, not on mass or (small) amplitude.

Density formula?

ρ = m/V (mass per volume). Water is ~1000 kg/m³ (1 g/cm³).

Pressure formula?

P = F/A — force per unit area. Unit: pascal (Pa = N/m²).

Pascal's principle?

Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally throughout (basis of hydraulics).

Archimedes' principle (buoyancy)?

The buoyant force equals the weight of fluid displaced; an object floats if it's less dense than the fluid.

Bernoulli's principle?

In flowing fluid, faster speed means lower pressure (energy conservation along a streamline).

Continuity equation for fluids?

A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ — a narrower pipe makes incompressible fluid flow faster (flow rate is constant).

Ohm's law?

V = IR — voltage equals current times resistance.

Electrical power formula?

P = IV = I²R = V²/R. Unit: watt.

Resistors in series vs parallel?

Series add directly (R = R₁+R₂); parallel add as reciprocals (1/R = 1/R₁+1/R₂), giving less total resistance.

Capacitors in series vs parallel?

Opposite of resistors: parallel add directly; series add as reciprocals.

Coulomb's law?

F = kq₁q₂/r² — the electrostatic force between charges; like charges repel, opposite attract.

Electric field of a point charge?

E = kq/r², pointing away from positive and toward negative charge. Unit: N/C or V/m.

Wave speed equation?

v = fλ — speed equals frequency times wavelength.

Frequency vs period relationship?

f = 1/T. Frequency is cycles per second (Hz); period is seconds per cycle.

Transverse vs longitudinal wave?

Transverse oscillates perpendicular to travel (light); longitudinal oscillates parallel (sound).

Constructive vs destructive interference?

In-phase waves add (constructive); out-of-phase waves cancel (destructive).

Doppler effect?

Observed frequency rises as a source approaches and falls as it recedes (a shift in perceived pitch).

Speed of sound vs light?

Sound ≈ 343 m/s in air; light ≈ 3×10⁸ m/s in vacuum. Light needs no medium.

Snell's law (refraction)?

n₁sinθ₁ = n₂sinθ₂ — light bends toward the normal entering a denser (higher-n) medium.

Index of refraction?

n = c/v — how much a medium slows light. Higher n means slower light and more bending.

Total internal reflection?

Above a critical angle, light hitting a less-dense medium reflects entirely (basis of fiber optics).

Converging vs diverging lens?

Converging (convex) focuses light to a real image; diverging (concave) spreads it, making a virtual image.

Thin lens / mirror equation?

1/f = 1/do + 1/di — relates focal length to object and image distances.

What is magnification?

m = −di/do = hi/ho. Negative m means an inverted image; |m|>1 means enlarged.

Heat transfer methods?

Conduction (contact), convection (fluid motion), and radiation (electromagnetic waves).

Specific heat — meaning?

The heat to raise 1 g of a substance by 1°C (Q = mcΔT). Water's high value resists temperature change.

What is the photoelectric effect?

Light above a threshold frequency ejects electrons from a metal — evidence that light is quantized (photons).

Energy of a photon?

E = hf = hc/λ — proportional to frequency; h is Planck's constant.

Half-life in radioactive decay?

The time for half of a radioactive sample to decay; constant for a given isotope.

Alpha vs beta vs gamma radiation?

Alpha = He nucleus (least penetrating); beta = electron/positron; gamma = high-energy photon (most penetrating).

Decibel scale — what kind of scale?

Logarithmic; every +10 dB is a tenfold increase in sound intensity.

Operant conditioning?

Learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences — reinforcement increases it, punishment decreases it (Skinner).

Positive vs negative reinforcement?

Positive adds a pleasant stimulus; negative removes an unpleasant one. Both increase behavior.

Reinforcement vs punishment?

Reinforcement increases a behavior; punishment decreases it. Each can be positive (add) or negative (remove).

Most resistant reinforcement schedule?

Variable-ratio (unpredictable number of responses) — it produces high, steady, extinction-resistant responding.

Three stages of memory?

Sensory memory → short-term/working memory → long-term memory (via encoding and consolidation).

Explicit vs implicit memory?

Explicit (declarative) is conscious facts/events; implicit (procedural) is skills and conditioned responses.

What is the serial position effect?

Better recall of the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list than the middle.

Piaget's four stages?

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational — cognitive development from infancy to adolescence.

Piaget — object permanence?

Knowing objects exist when out of sight; it develops in the sensorimotor stage.

Erikson's psychosocial conflict in adolescence?

Identity vs role confusion — adolescents work to form a coherent sense of self.

Kohlberg's three levels of moral development?

Preconventional (punishment/reward), conventional (social rules), postconventional (abstract principles).

Parts of Freud's structural model?

Id (desires), ego (reality), superego (morality). The ego mediates between the id and superego.

Sympathetic nervous system role?

The 'fight or flight' response — raises heart rate, dilates pupils, releases epinephrine.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (order)?

Physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization.

Neurotransmitter: dopamine?

Linked to reward, motivation, and movement; implicated in Parkinson's (low) and schizophrenia (excess activity).

Neurotransmitter: serotonin?

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite; low levels are associated with depression.

Neurotransmitter: GABA?

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter — it reduces neuronal excitability and calms the brain.

Function of the amygdala?

Processes emotion, especially fear and the response to threatening stimuli.

Function of the hippocampus?

Forms new long-term (declarative) memories and supports spatial navigation.

Function of the prefrontal cortex?

Executive functions — planning, decision-making, impulse control, and personality.

Broca's vs Wernicke's area?

Broca's (frontal) = speech production; Wernicke's (temporal) = language comprehension.

James-Lange vs Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

James-Lange: bodily arousal causes emotion. Cannon-Bard: arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory?

Emotion = physiological arousal + a cognitive label of that arousal based on context.

Absolute vs difference threshold?

Absolute = minimum stimulus detectable 50% of the time; difference (JND) = smallest detectable change.

Weber's law?

The just-noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus, not a fixed amount.

What is signal detection theory?

How we detect stimuli amid noise, influenced by both sensitivity and response bias (hits, misses, false alarms).

Top-down vs bottom-up processing?

Top-down uses prior knowledge/expectations; bottom-up builds perception from raw sensory data.

What is a stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination?

Stereotype = belief; prejudice = attitude/feeling; discrimination = behavior. Cognition, affect, action.

Fundamental attribution error?

Overattributing others' behavior to their character and underweighting situational causes.

Cognitive dissonance?

Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs/actions, motivating attitude change to reduce it (Festinger).

What is the mere-exposure effect?

Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking for it.

Stages of sleep — where do dreams mainly occur?

REM sleep — marked by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and muscle atonia.

What are circadian rhythms?

~24-hour biological cycles (e.g., sleep-wake) regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus and influenced by light/melatonin.

Heuristic vs algorithm?

A heuristic is a fast mental shortcut (sometimes biased); an algorithm is a step-by-step method guaranteeing a solution.

Availability vs representativeness heuristic?

Availability judges by how easily examples come to mind; representativeness judges by similarity to a prototype.

Type vs trait theories of personality?

Type theories sort people into categories; trait theories rate continuous dimensions (e.g., the Big Five).

The Big Five personality traits (OCEAN)?

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Positive vs negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

Positive add experiences (hallucinations, delusions); negative subtract (flat affect, avolition).

Classical conditioning terms (UCS/UCR/CS/CR)?

UCS triggers a natural UCR; after pairing, a CS triggers a learned CR (e.g., bell → salivation).

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching and imitating others (Bandura's social learning; the Bobo doll study).

Sensation vs perception?

Sensation is detecting raw stimuli; perception is the brain's organization and interpretation of them.

What is the spacing effect?

Information is retained better when study is spread over time rather than massed (crammed).

Drive-reduction theory?

Behavior is motivated to reduce internal tension from unmet biological needs, restoring homeostasis.

What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?

Performance peaks at moderate arousal; too little or too much arousal impairs it (an inverted U).

Three major sociological paradigms?

Functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Functionalism — core idea?

Society is a system of interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability (Durkheim).

Conflict theory — core idea?

Society is shaped by competition over scarce resources and power, producing inequality (Marx).

Symbolic interactionism — core idea?

Society emerges from everyday interactions and shared meanings/symbols (micro-level; Mead, Goffman).

Marx — bourgeoisie vs proletariat?

The bourgeoisie own the means of production; the proletariat sell their labor. Class conflict drives change.

Weber's contribution?

Emphasized rationalization, bureaucracy, and the role of ideas (the Protestant ethic) in social life.

What is socialization?

The lifelong process of learning a society's norms, values, and roles (family is the primary agent).

Primary vs secondary group?

Primary groups are small and intimate (family, close friends); secondary groups are larger and goal-oriented.

What is a social institution?

An enduring structure meeting basic needs — e.g., family, education, religion, government, the economy.

Ascribed vs achieved status?

Ascribed status is assigned at birth (e.g., race); achieved status is earned through actions (e.g., a profession).

What is a role conflict vs role strain?

Role conflict is tension between different roles; role strain is tension within a single role.

Social stratification?

A society's hierarchical ranking of people into layers based on wealth, power, and prestige.

Caste vs class system?

Caste is closed and ascribed (little mobility); class is more open and allows social mobility.

What is social mobility?

Movement between social positions — intergenerational (across generations) or intragenerational (within a lifetime).

Absolute vs relative poverty?

Absolute poverty is lacking basic necessities; relative poverty is being poor compared to others in society.

What is cultural capital?

Non-financial assets (education, tastes, skills) that confer social advantage (Bourdieu).

Meritocracy?

A system in which rewards are based on individual talent and effort rather than inherited status.

What is the demographic transition?

A shift from high birth/death rates to low ones as a society industrializes, changing population growth.

Push vs pull factors in migration?

Push factors drive people from an area (war, famine); pull factors attract them to another (jobs, safety).

What is urbanization?

The growing concentration of population in cities, often tied to industrialization.

Gemeinschaft vs Gesellschaft?

Gemeinschaft = close, traditional community ties; Gesellschaft = impersonal, modern, goal-driven relationships (Tönnies).

What is anomie?

A state of normlessness where social norms weaken or conflict, often during rapid change (Durkheim).

Labeling theory?

Deviance arises because society labels acts (or people) as deviant, which can become a self-fulfilling identity.

What is the McDonaldization of society?

Ritzer's idea that the fast-food model's efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control spread through institutions.

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

A belief or expectation that causes its own fulfillment through people's behavior.

In-group vs out-group?

An in-group is one a person identifies with; an out-group is one seen as 'other,' often with bias.

What are social control mechanisms?

Formal (laws, sanctions) and informal (norms, peer pressure) means a society uses to enforce conformity.

Globalization?

The increasing interconnection of economies, cultures, and populations across national borders.

What is healthcare disparity?

Differences in health outcomes and access across social groups, often tied to socioeconomic status and race.

What does CARS test?

Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills — reading comprehension and reasoning, with no outside science knowledge required.

CARS — three skill categories?

Foundations of Comprehension, Reasoning Within the Text, and Reasoning Beyond the Text.

CARS format?

53 questions on 9 passages in 90 minutes, drawn from the humanities and social sciences.

CARS — 'main idea' question strategy?

Pick the choice that captures the whole passage's central argument, not just one supporting detail.

CARS — how to handle inference questions?

Choose the conclusion the passage logically supports; reject answers that add unstated facts or overreach.

CARS — biggest trap?

Bringing in outside knowledge or opinion. Every correct answer must be grounded in the passage itself.

CARS — 'strengthen/weaken' question approach?

Find the answer that most directly supports or undermines the author's specific argument as stated.

CARS — author's tone, how to gauge?

Use word choice and connotation; watch for hedging, criticism, or endorsement signaled by the language.

CARS — 'EXCEPT/NOT' questions?

The correct answer is the one that is false or unsupported; three choices will be true per the passage.

CARS — application questions?

Apply the passage's principle to a new scenario; pick the option most consistent with the author's logic.

CARS — best pacing strategy?

About 10 minutes per passage; don't over-invest in one. Answer every question — there's no guessing penalty.