- Main idea
- The central point a passage conveys — what the whole text is mostly about.
- Supporting detail
- A fact, example, statistic, or reason that explains or develops the main idea.
- Author's purpose
- The reason a text was written — to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain.
- Tone
- The author's attitude toward the subject, shown through word choice.
- Mood
- The feeling or atmosphere a text creates in the reader.
- Inference
- A logical conclusion drawn from text evidence plus prior knowledge — not stated outright.
- Theme
- The underlying message or insight about life that a literary work conveys.
- Literary text
- Imaginative writing — fiction, poetry, drama; 40% of HiSET Reading passages.
- Informational text
- Nonfiction — essays, articles, editorials, documents; 60% of HiSET Reading.
- Connotation
- The emotional or implied meaning of a word, beyond its literal meaning.
- Denotation
- The literal, dictionary definition of a word.
- Figurative language
- Language meaning beyond the literal — metaphor, simile, personification.
- Metaphor
- A comparison that states one thing IS another (e.g., 'time is money').
- Simile
- A comparison using 'like' or 'as' (e.g., 'brave as a lion').
- Personification
- Giving human qualities to non-human things (e.g., 'the wind whispered').
- Symbolism
- Using an object or image to represent a larger idea.
- Irony
- A contrast between what is expected and what actually happens or is said.
- Point of view
- The perspective from which a story is told (first person 'I', third person 'he/she').
- Narrator
- The voice that tells a story; may be a character or an outside observer.
- Characterization
- How an author reveals a character's traits through actions, words, and thoughts.
- Summary
- A brief restatement of a text's main idea and key supporting points.
- Comprehension
- Understanding the explicit, stated information in a text.
- Synthesis
- Combining ideas from two or more texts to draw a broader conclusion.
- Compare and contrast
- Examining how two things are alike (compare) and different (contrast).
- Cause and effect
- A text structure showing how one event leads to another.
- Sequence
- A text structure presenting events in chronological order.
- Problem and solution
- A text structure that states an issue and proposes a way to resolve it.
- Context clues
- Words or phrases nearby that help reveal an unfamiliar word's meaning.
- Argument
- An author's claim supported by reasons and evidence.
- Claim
- A debatable position an author argues for.
- Evidence
- Facts, examples, and reasoning used to support a claim.
- Counterargument
- A point that opposes the author's claim, often addressed to strengthen the argument.
- Bias
- An author's unfair leaning that shapes how information is presented.
- Fact vs. opinion
- A fact can be proven true; an opinion is a personal belief or judgment.
- Primary source
- A firsthand record from the time studied (letter, diary, speech).
- Secondary source
- A later account that analyzes or interprets primary sources.
- Foreshadowing
- Hints early in a text about what will happen later.
- Flashback
- An interruption that shows an earlier event.
- Imagery
- Descriptive language that appeals to the five senses.
- Allusion
- A reference to a well-known person, event, or work.
- Genre
- A category of writing (e.g., memoir, editorial, poetry, biography).
- Memoir
- A nonfiction account of the author's own memories and experiences.
- Editorial
- An opinion piece that argues a position, usually in a newspaper.
- Biographical sketch
- A short nonfiction account of a person's life.
- Topic sentence
- The sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph.
- Paraphrase
- Restating a text's ideas in your own words without changing the meaning.
- Drawing conclusions
- Using evidence to decide what is logically true beyond the text.
- Implicit vs. explicit
- Explicit is stated directly; implicit is suggested and must be inferred.
- Rhetoric
- The art of using language to persuade an audience.
- Audience
- The intended readers a text is written for.
- Diction
- An author's choice of words, which shapes tone and meaning.
- Generalization
- A broad statement drawn from several examples or pieces of evidence.
- Stanza
- A grouped set of lines in a poem, like a paragraph.
- Theme vs. topic
- The topic is what a text is about; the theme is the message about it.
- Subject-verb agreement
- A singular subject takes a singular verb; a plural subject takes a plural verb.
- Parallel structure
- Using the same grammatical form for items in a list, pair, or comparison.
- Transition
- A word or phrase (however, therefore) that signals the relationship between ideas.
- Run-on sentence
- Two independent clauses joined incorrectly, without proper punctuation.
- Comma splice
- Two independent clauses joined by only a comma — an error.
- Sentence fragment
- An incomplete sentence missing a subject, verb, or complete thought.
- Independent clause
- A group of words with a subject and verb that can stand alone as a sentence.
- Dependent clause
- A clause with a subject and verb that cannot stand alone.
- Pronoun-antecedent agreement
- A pronoun must match its noun in number and gender.
- Verb tense consistency
- Keep tense the same unless the time frame actually changes.
- Dangling modifier
- A modifier with no clear word to describe, causing confusion.
- Misplaced modifier
- A modifier placed too far from the word it describes.
- Pronoun case
- Use subjective (I, he), objective (me, him), or possessive (my, his) correctly.
- Active voice
- The subject performs the action (e.g., 'the team won the game').
- Passive voice
- The subject receives the action (e.g., 'the game was won by the team').
- Apostrophe
- Shows possession or a contraction — never a plain plural.
- Semicolon
- Links two closely related independent clauses, or separates complex list items.
- Colon
- Introduces a list, explanation, or quotation after a complete sentence.
- Comma in a series
- Use commas to separate three or more items in a list.
- Compound sentence
- Two independent clauses joined by a comma + conjunction or a semicolon.
- Complex sentence
- An independent clause joined with one or more dependent clauses.
- Coordinating conjunction
- A word joining equal parts: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS).
- Subordinating conjunction
- A word starting a dependent clause (because, although, since, while).
- Organization of ideas
- Arranging a text logically with effective openings, transitions, closings (22%).
- Language facility
- Clear, varied, idiomatic sentences and precise word choice (43%).
- Writing conventions
- Correct grammar, usage, punctuation, capitalization, spelling (35%).
- Constructed response
- The HiSET essay: an evidence-based argument from a pair of source texts.
- Thesis statement
- A sentence that states the central claim of an essay.
- Introduction
- The opening paragraph that hooks the reader and states the thesis.
- Conclusion
- The closing paragraph that restates the position and ties ideas together.
- Body paragraph
- A paragraph that develops one point with evidence and reasoning.
- Wordiness
- Using more words than needed; HiSET rewards concise standard English.
- Redundancy
- Needless repetition of an idea (e.g., 'free gift').
- Idiomatic usage
- Standard phrasing native speakers use (e.g., 'interested in', not 'interested on').
- Capitalization
- Begin sentences and proper nouns with a capital letter.
- Modifier
- A word or phrase (adjective, adverb) that describes another word.
- Antecedent
- The noun a pronoun refers back to.
- Clarity
- Writing that is easy to understand on first reading — a key HiSET goal.
- Tone (writing)
- The attitude your word choice conveys; match it to your audience and purpose.
- Concise writing
- Expressing ideas in as few words as possible without losing meaning.
- Revising
- Improving content, organization, and clarity of a draft.
- Editing
- Correcting grammar, punctuation, and spelling in a draft.
- Quotation marks
- Set off direct speech, quotations, and certain titles.
- Verb mood
- Indicative (states a fact), imperative (commands), or subjunctive (hypothetical).
- Comparative vs. superlative
- Comparative compares two (taller); superlative compares three+ (tallest).
- Homophone
- Words that sound alike but differ in meaning/spelling (their, there, they're).
- Audience and purpose
- Adjust word choice, tone, and style to fit who you write for and why.
- Evidence in an essay
- Specific support from the source texts that backs your claim.
- Sequencing ideas
- Ordering points so each builds logically on the last.
- Paragraphing
- Grouping related sentences; start a new paragraph for each new idea.
- Standard English
- The widely accepted formal grammar and usage tested on the HiSET.
- Vague pronoun
- A pronoun with no clear antecedent, causing confusion.
- Sentence variety
- Mixing short and long, simple and complex sentences for better flow.
- Slope
- Rise over run: the change in y divided by the change in x; the m in y = mx + b.
- Order of operations
- PEMDAS: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply/Divide, Add/Subtract (left to right).
- y-intercept
- Where a line crosses the y-axis (x = 0); the b in y = mx + b.
- Linear equation
- An equation whose graph is a straight line; variables to the first power.
- Quadratic equation
- ax² + bx + c = 0; its graph is a parabola; solve by factoring or the formula.
- Quadratic formula
- x = (−b ± √(b² − 4ac)) ÷ (2a), where ax² + bx + c = 0.
- Pythagorean theorem
- In a right triangle, a² + b² = c² (c is the hypotenuse). NOT on the formula sheet.
- Mean
- The average — add all values and divide by how many there are.
- Median
- The middle value of a data set arranged in order.
- Mode
- The value that appears most often in a data set.
- Range (statistics)
- The highest value minus the lowest value in a data set.
- Probability
- Favorable outcomes ÷ total outcomes; a number from 0 to 1.
- Percent to decimal
- Divide by 100 (move the point two places left): 25% = 0.25.
- Decimal to percent
- Multiply by 100 (move the point two places right): 0.4 = 40%.
- Percent of a number
- Convert to a decimal and multiply: 20% of 80 = 0.20 × 80 = 16.
- Percent change
- (new − old) ÷ old × 100.
- Ratio
- A comparison of two quantities by division (e.g., 3 to 4, or 3:4).
- Proportion
- Two equal ratios; solve by cross-multiplying.
- Cross-multiplication
- To solve a/b = c/d, set a×d = b×c.
- Exponent rule (product)
- When multiplying like bases, add exponents: xᵃ × xᵇ = xᵃ⁺ᵇ.
- Exponent rule (quotient)
- When dividing like bases, subtract exponents: xᵃ ÷ xᵇ = xᵃ⁻ᵇ.
- Square root
- A value that, multiplied by itself, gives the number: √25 = 5.
- Scientific notation
- A number written as a digit × a power of 10 (e.g., 3 × 10⁸).
- Rational number
- A number that can be written as a fraction of two integers.
- Irrational number
- A number that can't be written as a fraction (e.g., √2, π).
- Integer
- A whole number and its negatives (…, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, …).
- Absolute value
- A number's distance from zero, always non-negative: |−5| = 5.
- Function
- A rule assigning exactly one output to each input; written f(x).
- Domain and range
- Domain = all input (x) values; range = all output (y) values.
- Inequality
- A statement using <, >, ≤, or ≥; flip the sign when multiplying/dividing by a negative.
- System of equations
- Two equations solved together by substitution or elimination.
- Area of a rectangle
- Area = length × width.
- Area of a triangle
- Area = ½ × base × height.
- Area of a circle
- Area = π × r² (r is the radius).
- Circumference of a circle
- C = 2 × π × r, or π × diameter.
- Volume of a rectangular solid
- Volume = length × width × height.
- Volume of a cylinder
- Volume = π × r² × height.
- Perimeter
- The total distance around a 2-D shape (add all side lengths).
- Supplementary angles
- Two angles whose measures add to 180°.
- Complementary angles
- Two angles whose measures add to 90°.
- Vertical angles
- Opposite angles formed by two intersecting lines; they are equal.
- Similar triangles
- Triangles with equal angles and proportional sides.
- Congruent figures
- Figures with the same size and shape.
- Mean vs. median
- Use the median over the mean when a data set has extreme outliers.
- Line of best fit
- A trend line through a scatter plot; its slope is the rate of change.
- Coordinate plane
- A grid defined by the x-axis and y-axis; points are written (x, y).
- Distance formula
- distance = rate × time (d = rt); NOT provided on the formula sheet.
- Factoring
- Rewriting an expression as a product (e.g., x² + 5x + 6 = (x+2)(x+3)).
- Polynomial
- An expression of terms with whole-number exponents (e.g., 2x² + 3x − 1).
- Like terms
- Terms with the same variable and exponent that can be combined.
- Density
- Mass per unit of area or volume (e.g., persons per square mile).
- Outlier
- A data value far from the rest, which can skew the mean.
- Histogram
- A bar graph showing the frequency of data in equal intervals.
- Box plot
- A display of a data set's median, quartiles, and range.
- Two-way frequency table
- A table showing counts for two categorical variables.
- Rate of change
- How one quantity changes relative to another — the slope of a line.
- Solving a linear equation
- Use inverse operations on both sides to isolate the variable.
- Calculator-neutral
- HiSET Math doesn't require a calculator; one is provided on request.
- Photosynthesis
- Plants use sunlight, CO₂, and water to make glucose and oxygen (in chloroplasts).
- Cellular respiration
- Cells break down glucose to release usable energy (≈ reverse of photosynthesis).
- Independent variable
- The variable the experimenter deliberately changes.
- Dependent variable
- The variable measured to see if it responds to the independent variable.
- Controlled variable
- A variable held constant so an experiment fairly tests one change.
- Hypothesis
- A testable, falsifiable proposed explanation, often an 'if…then…' prediction.
- Scientific method
- Observe, hypothesize, test, analyze data, and conclude.
- Cell
- The basic structural and functional unit of life.
- Nucleus
- The cell's control center, containing DNA.
- Chloroplast
- The plant-cell organelle where photosynthesis occurs.
- Mitochondria
- The organelle that produces energy through cellular respiration.
- DNA
- The molecule carrying genetic instructions for an organism.
- Gene
- A segment of DNA that codes for a trait.
- Dominant vs. recessive
- A dominant allele masks a recessive one when both are present.
- Natural selection
- Better-adapted organisms survive and reproduce more — the mechanism of evolution.
- Evolution
- The change in inherited traits of a population over generations.
- Ecosystem
- A community of organisms interacting with their non-living environment.
- Food chain
- A sequence showing energy flow from producers to consumers.
- Producer
- An organism (like a plant) that makes its own food via photosynthesis.
- Consumer
- An organism that eats other organisms for energy.
- Decomposer
- An organism that breaks down dead matter, recycling nutrients.
- Predation
- An interaction where one organism hunts and eats another.
- Mutualism
- A relationship in which both organisms benefit.
- Competition
- When organisms vie for the same limited resource.
- Homeostasis
- An organism's maintenance of a stable internal environment.
- Atom
- The basic unit of matter, made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
- Proton
- A positively charged particle in an atom's nucleus.
- Electron
- A negatively charged particle orbiting an atom's nucleus.
- Periodic table
- A chart organizing the elements by atomic number and properties.
- Element
- A pure substance made of one type of atom.
- Compound
- A substance made of two or more elements chemically combined (e.g., H₂O).
- Molecule
- Two or more atoms bonded together.
- States of matter
- Solid, liquid, and gas; changes between them are physical changes.
- Physical change
- A change in form, not identity (e.g., ice melting).
- Chemical change
- A change forming a new substance (e.g., rusting, burning).
- Chemical reaction
- A process in which atoms rearrange; mass is conserved.
- Conservation of mass
- Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
- Force
- A push or pull that can change an object's motion.
- Newton's second law
- Force = mass × acceleration (F = ma).
- Kinetic energy
- The energy of motion.
- Potential energy
- Stored energy due to position or arrangement.
- Conservation of energy
- Energy transforms but is never created or destroyed.
- Work
- Force applied over a distance (Work = force × distance).
- Power
- The rate of doing work (work over time).
- Gravity
- The attractive force between masses; gives objects weight.
- Electric charge
- A property of matter; moving charges produce magnetic forces.
- Conductor vs. insulator
- Conductors let electricity flow easily; insulators resist it.
- Water cycle
- Water moving through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection.
- Evaporation
- Liquid water turning into water vapor.
- Condensation
- Water vapor cooling into liquid droplets, forming clouds.
- Greenhouse effect
- Atmospheric gases trapping heat that would otherwise escape to space.
- Weather vs. climate
- Weather is short-term conditions; climate is the long-term average.
- Plate tectonics
- Earth's surface is broken into plates whose movement causes quakes and mountains.
- Erosion
- The wearing away and transport of rock and soil by wind or water.
- Solar system
- The Sun and the objects orbiting it, including the planets.
- Earth's tilt and seasons
- Earth's axial tilt causes the changing seasons.
- Star life cycle
- Stars form, fuse hydrogen, then expand and die (some as supernovae).
- Interpreting data
- Reading graphs, tables, and charts — the top HiSET Science skill.
- Conclusion vs. assumption
- A conclusion follows from data; an assumption is taken for granted.
- Correlation vs. causation
- A relationship between variables does not prove one causes the other.
- Three branches of government
- Legislative (makes laws), Executive (enforces), Judicial (interprets).
- Separation of powers
- Dividing government authority among the three branches.
- Checks and balances
- Each branch can limit the powers of the others.
- Legislative branch
- Congress (Senate + House); makes laws and controls spending.
- Executive branch
- The President and agencies; enforces laws and commands the military.
- Judicial branch
- The courts; interprets laws and the Constitution.
- Judicial review
- The power of courts to declare a law or action unconstitutional.
- Constitution
- The supreme law of the U.S., establishing the framework of government.
- Bill of Rights
- The first ten amendments, guaranteeing individual rights.
- Federalism
- The sharing of power between national and state governments.
- Democracy
- Government in which power comes from the people, usually via elected representatives.
- Republic
- A government where citizens elect representatives to make laws.
- Amendment
- A formal change or addition to the Constitution.
- How a bill becomes law
- Introduced → committee → both chambers pass → President signs or vetoes.
- Veto
- The President's power to reject a bill passed by Congress.
- Veto override
- Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.
- Declaration of Independence
- 1776 document declaring the colonies free and asserting natural rights.
- Rights and responsibilities
- Citizens have rights (vote, speech) and duties (obey laws, pay taxes).
- Supply and demand
- Price settles where the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded.
- Scarcity
- The basic economic problem: limited resources, unlimited wants.
- Equilibrium price
- The price where supply meets demand.
- Opportunity cost
- The value of the next-best option you give up when you choose.
- GDP
- Gross domestic product — the total value of goods and services a country produces.
- Inflation
- A sustained rise in prices that lowers money's purchasing power.
- Fiscal policy
- Government use of taxing and spending to influence the economy.
- Monetary policy
- Central-bank control of money supply and interest rates.
- Market economy
- An economy where prices are set by supply and demand, not the government.
- Consumer economics
- Saving, credit, interest rates, and informed financial choices.
- Interest
- The cost of borrowing money, or the return earned on savings.
- Tax
- A required payment to the government to fund public services.
- American Revolution
- The colonies' war for independence from Britain (1775–1783).
- Civil War
- The 1861–1865 U.S. war that ended slavery and tested the Union.
- Reconstruction
- The post-Civil-War era of rebuilding and the 13th–15th Amendments.
- 13th Amendment
- Abolished slavery in the United States.
- 14th Amendment
- Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law.
- 15th Amendment
- Prohibited denying the vote based on race.
- Industrial Revolution
- A shift to machine manufacturing that transformed the economy.
- Great Depression
- The severe 1930s economic downturn.
- New Deal
- FDR's 1930s programs to fight the Great Depression.
- World War I
- The 1914–1918 global war that reshaped Europe.
- World War II
- The 1939–1945 global war that made the U.S. a superpower.
- Cold War
- Post-WWII tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
- Civil Rights Movement
- The 1950s–60s struggle to end legal segregation and expand equality.
- Age of Exploration
- European voyages that expanded global trade and contact.
- Manifest Destiny
- The 1800s belief that the U.S. was destined to expand westward.
- Primary source (history)
- A firsthand account from the time studied (letter, speech, photo).
- Political cartoon
- A drawing using symbols and exaggeration to make a political point.
- Geography
- The study of Earth's features and how they shape human activity.
- Map legend
- The key explaining a map's symbols and colors.
- Map scale
- The ratio of map distance to real distance.
- Latitude and longitude
- Coordinates locating any point on Earth (north-south, east-west).
- Migration
- The movement of people from one place to another.
- Climate (geography)
- The long-term average weather of a region.
- Natural resources
- Materials from nature (water, oil, minerals) used by people.
- Urbanization
- The growth of cities as people move from rural areas.
- Globalization
- The increasing economic and cultural connection among countries.
- Cause and effect (history)
- Linking events to their causes and consequences — a key HiSET skill.
- Fact vs. opinion (social studies)
- Distinguishing what can be proven from a personal judgment.
- Reliability of sources
- Judging whether a source is trustworthy and unbiased.
