Your FREE DAT Flashcards 2026 – 250+ Cards

DAT Flashcards

Powerhouse of the cell?

The mitochondria — site of aerobic respiration, making most of the cell's ATP.

LAB RAT — what does it stand for?

Left = Bicuspid (mitral), Right = Tricuspid. The two atrioventricular heart valves.

Strongest chamber of the heart?

The left ventricle — it pumps oxygenated blood out the aorta to the whole body.

Path of blood through the heart?

Vena cava → right atrium → tricuspid → right ventricle → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary vein → left atrium → mitral → left ventricle → aorta.

Which organelle synthesizes proteins?

The ribosome (free in the cytoplasm or bound to rough ER).

Function of the Golgi apparatus?

Packages, modifies, and ships proteins and lipids — the cell's 'post office.'

Function of lysosomes?

Digest waste, debris, and worn-out organelles using hydrolytic enzymes.

Rough ER vs smooth ER?

Rough ER (with ribosomes) processes proteins; smooth ER makes lipids and detoxifies.

Mitosis vs meiosis (outcome)?

Mitosis → 2 identical diploid cells (growth/repair). Meiosis → 4 unique haploid gametes (reproduction).

What is the central dogma?

DNA → RNA → protein: transcription makes RNA, translation makes protein.

3 stages of aerobic respiration?

Glycolysis (cytoplasm) → Krebs cycle (matrix) → electron transport chain (inner membrane).

Where does glycolysis occur?

In the cytoplasm; it splits glucose into 2 pyruvate, net +2 ATP and 2 NADH, no oxygen needed.

Final electron acceptor in the ETC?

Oxygen — it combines with H⁺ and electrons to form water.

ATP yield of aerobic respiration?

Roughly 30–32 ATP per glucose (most from the electron transport chain).

What is photosynthesis (overall)?

6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂. Light reactions (thylakoid) + Calvin cycle (stroma).

Diffusion vs active transport?

Diffusion is passive (high → low concentration, no ATP); active transport moves against the gradient and needs ATP.

What is osmosis?

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, from high to low water concentration.

Hypotonic vs hypertonic solution?

A cell in a hypotonic solution swells (water in); in a hypertonic solution it shrinks (water out).

Hardy-Weinberg equations?

p + q = 1 and p² + 2pq + q² = 1; 2pq is the heterozygote frequency.

5 conditions for Hardy-Weinberg?

No mutation, no migration, no natural selection, random mating, and a large population.

Bb × Bb phenotype ratio?

3:1 (dominant : recessive) for a single trait with complete dominance.

Genotype vs phenotype?

Genotype is the genetic makeup (e.g., Bb); phenotype is the observable trait (e.g., brown eyes).

Homozygous vs heterozygous?

Homozygous = two identical alleles (BB or bb); heterozygous = two different alleles (Bb).

Prokaryote vs eukaryote?

Prokaryotes (bacteria) lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; eukaryotes have both.

The six biological kingdoms?

Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.

What is an enzyme?

A biological catalyst (usually a protein) that lowers activation energy and speeds a reaction without being consumed.

What is homeostasis?

The maintenance of a stable internal environment (temperature, pH, glucose), usually by negative feedback.

Negative vs positive feedback?

Negative feedback reverses a change to restore balance (insulin); positive feedback amplifies it (childbirth).

Insulin vs glucagon?

Insulin lowers blood glucose (storage); glucagon raises it (release). Both from the pancreas.

Where does gas exchange occur?

In the alveoli of the lungs — oxygen in, carbon dioxide out, across a thin moist membrane.

Path of urine formation?

Kidney (nephron filters blood) → ureter → bladder → urethra.

CNS vs PNS?

Central nervous system = brain + spinal cord; peripheral nervous system = all nerves outside it.

What does a neuron do?

Carries electrical signals; structure: dendrites (receive) → cell body → axon → synapse (transmit).

Natural selection (one line)?

Heritable traits that improve survival and reproduction become more common over generations.

What is an antibody?

A protein made by the immune system (B cells) that binds a specific antigen to neutralize a pathogen.

Ideal gas law?

PV = nRT. Use kelvin and R = 0.0821 L·atm/(mol·K).

Avogadro's number?

6.02 × 10²³ particles per mole.

The pH formula?

pH = −log[H⁺], and pH + pOH = 14. Below 7 acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic.

OIL RIG means?

Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons), Reduction Is Gain. The redox mnemonic.

Le Chatelier's principle?

A disturbed equilibrium shifts to partly offset the change and restore balance.

Boyle's law?

At constant temperature, P ∝ 1/V — pressure and volume are inversely related.

Charles's law?

At constant pressure, V ∝ T — volume rises with absolute temperature.

What is the limiting reactant?

The reactant that runs out first and caps how much product can form.

Steps of a stoichiometry problem?

Balance the equation → grams to moles (÷ molar mass) → apply mole ratio → moles to grams.

Strong acid vs weak acid?

A strong acid (HCl) fully dissociates; a weak acid (CH₃COOH) only partly dissociates.

Brønsted-Lowry acid vs base?

An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor; a base is a proton acceptor.

Endothermic vs exothermic?

Endothermic absorbs heat (+ΔH); exothermic releases heat (−ΔH).

Ionic vs covalent bond?

Ionic = electron transfer (metal + nonmetal, e.g. NaCl); covalent = electron sharing (nonmetals, e.g. H₂O).

What defines an element?

Its atomic number — the number of protons in the nucleus.

What are valence electrons?

The outer-shell electrons that drive chemical bonding and reactivity.

Periodic trend: atomic radius?

Decreases across a period (left → right) and increases down a group.

Periodic trend: electronegativity?

Increases across a period and decreases down a group; fluorine is highest.

Rule for balancing equations?

Change coefficients only, never subscripts — to conserve mass (and atoms of each element).

Molarity formula?

Molarity (M) = moles of solute ÷ liters of solution.

Activation energy?

The minimum energy needed to start a reaction; a catalyst lowers it.

First law of thermodynamics?

Energy is conserved — it can change form but is neither created nor destroyed.

What is half-life?

The time for half of a radioactive sample to decay; constant for a given isotope.

Colligative property example?

Boiling-point elevation / freezing-point depression — depends on the number of solute particles, not their identity.

SN1 vs SN2 (one line)?

SN1: 2 steps via carbocation, 3° carbons, racemization. SN2: 1 concerted step, 1° carbons, inversion.

Rate law: SN1 vs SN2?

SN1 is first order (rate = k[substrate]); SN2 is second order (rate = k[substrate][nucleophile]).

Best substrate for SN2?

Primary (1°) or methyl carbons — low steric hindrance lets the nucleophile attack from the back.

Best substrate for SN1?

Tertiary (3°) carbons — they form the most stable carbocation intermediate.

E1 vs E2 elimination?

E1 is stepwise via a carbocation; E2 is concerted and needs a strong base (anti-periplanar H).

What is a chiral center?

A carbon bonded to four different groups; its mirror image is non-superimposable.

What are enantiomers?

Non-superimposable mirror-image molecules; they rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions.

Markovnikov's rule?

In addition to an alkene, H adds to the carbon with more hydrogens (forming the more stable carbocation).

Hückel's rule (aromaticity)?

A cyclic, planar, fully conjugated ring is aromatic if it has 4n + 2 π electrons (2, 6, 10…).

How many π electrons in benzene?

Six (n = 1 in 4n + 2) — fully delocalized around the ring.

Functional group: −OH?

Hydroxyl — the functional group of alcohols.

Functional group: C=O?

Carbonyl — found in aldehydes (end) and ketones (middle).

Functional group: −COOH?

Carboxyl — the functional group of carboxylic acids.

Functional group: −NH₂?

Amino — the functional group of amines.

Aldehyde vs ketone?

Both have C=O; aldehydes have it at the end of the chain (−CHO), ketones in the middle.

What does IR spectroscopy identify?

Functional groups — e.g., a broad ~3300 cm⁻¹ peak signals an O−H, ~1700 cm⁻¹ a C=O.

What does ¹H NMR tell you?

The number, type, and neighbors of hydrogens — mapping the carbon-hydrogen skeleton.

sp³ vs sp² vs sp hybridization?

sp³ = 4 single bonds (tetrahedral, 109.5°); sp² = double bond (trigonal, 120°); sp = triple bond (linear, 180°).

What is resonance?

Delocalization of electrons across multiple valid Lewis structures; the real molecule is a hybrid and more stable.

Constitutional vs stereoisomers?

Constitutional isomers differ in connectivity; stereoisomers have the same connectivity but differ in 3D arrangement.

Diastereomers vs enantiomers?

Enantiomers are mirror images; diastereomers are stereoisomers that are NOT mirror images.

Nucleophile vs electrophile?

A nucleophile donates an electron pair (electron-rich); an electrophile accepts one (electron-poor).

What is a racemic mixture?

An equal (50:50) mix of two enantiomers; it is optically inactive (no net rotation of light).

Curved arrows on the DAT show?

Double-headed arrows = movement of an electron PAIR; single/fishhook arrows = movement of ONE electron.

How many PAT subtests are there?

Six, 15 items each (90 total): Apertures, View Recognition, Angle Ranking, Paper Folding, Cube Counting, 3D Form Development.

PAT — Apertures (keyholes) task?

Pick the single opening a 3D object can pass straight through in any orientation.

PAT — View Recognition task?

Given two of the top, front, and end views, choose the correct missing view.

PAT — Angle Discrimination task?

Rank four angles from smallest to largest.

PAT — Paper Folding task?

Predict the hole pattern after a folded, hole-punched paper is unfolded.

PAT — Cube Counting task?

Count how many faces of each cube in a stack are painted/exposed.

PAT — 3D Form Development task?

Identify the 3D shape a flat pattern produces when folded a specific way.

Is the PAT in the Academic Average?

No — the Perceptual Ability score is reported separately and is NOT part of the Academic Average.

Paper folding — how do holes multiply?

Each fold doubles the layers, so one punch can make 2, 4, 8… holes depending on the number of folds.

Cube counting — hidden faces?

Bottom and back faces touching the surface or other cubes are unpainted — don't count them.

View recognition — dashed lines mean?

Hidden edges (behind the visible surface) in an orthographic top/front/end view.

Is the PAT trainable?

Yes — it's among the most improvable DAT sections; review the official PAT instructions before test day.

How many DAT reading passages?

Three passages on scientific topics; 50 items in 60 minutes total.

Reading — golden rule?

Answer ONLY from the passage; no outside knowledge is needed and bringing it in is the #1 trap.

Main idea vs supporting detail?

The main idea covers the WHOLE passage; a supporting detail covers just one part.

What is an inference?

A conclusion the passage supports but doesn't state outright — stay one short step from the text.

Reading — 'EXCEPT/NOT' questions?

Find the three options the passage DOES support; the odd one out is the answer.

Vocabulary-in-context strategy?

Use the surrounding sentence's clue and charge — not the word's most common dictionary meaning.

What is 'passage mapping'?

Skimming for structure and noting where key facts live, so you can locate answers fast.

Author's purpose — common types?

To inform, persuade, describe, or instruct; most DAT science passages are written to inform.

Fact vs opinion?

A fact can be verified true/false; an opinion is a judgment, often flagged by 'best,' 'should,' or 'unfortunately.'

Why distrust 'always'/'only'?

Extreme/absolute wording is often a wrong-answer trap unless the passage is equally absolute.

Percent change formula?

(new − old) ÷ old × 100. Always divide by the ORIGINAL value.

Pythagorean theorem?

a² + b² = c² for a right triangle (c is the hypotenuse).

Quadratic formula?

x = (−b ± √(b² − 4ac)) ÷ 2a.

Area and circumference of a circle?

Area = πr²; circumference = 2πr.

SOH-CAH-TOA?

sin = opposite/hypotenuse, cos = adjacent/hypotenuse, tan = opposite/adjacent.

Simple probability?

P(event) = favorable outcomes ÷ total outcomes, a value from 0 to 1.

Probability: AND vs OR?

Independent AND → multiply the probabilities; mutually exclusive OR → add them.

How do you solve a proportion?

Set two ratios equal (a/b = c/d) and cross-multiply: ad = bc, then solve for the unknown.

Order of operations (PEMDAS)?

Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply/Divide (left→right), Add/Subtract (left→right).

Mean, median, mode?

Mean = average; median = middle value when ordered; mode = most frequent value.

Slope of a line?

Slope = rise/run = (y₂ − y₁) ÷ (x₂ − x₁); the m in y = mx + b.

Area of a triangle?

½ × base × height.

30-60-90 triangle side ratio?

1 : √3 : 2 (opposite the 30°, 60°, 90° angles, respectively).

45-45-90 triangle side ratio?

1 : 1 : √2 (the legs are equal; the hypotenuse is √2 times a leg).

Exponent rule: xᵃ × xᵇ?

Add the exponents: xᵃ × xᵇ = xᵃ⁺ᵇ.

Is a calculator allowed on the DAT?

Only on Quantitative Reasoning — a basic on-screen four-function calculator. None on the science sections.

Difference between DNA and RNA?

DNA is double-stranded with deoxyribose and thymine; RNA is single-stranded with ribose and uracil.

Three types of RNA?

mRNA (carries the code), tRNA (brings amino acids), and rRNA (builds the ribosome).

What is transcription?

Making an mRNA copy of a DNA gene in the nucleus; catalyzed by RNA polymerase.

What is translation?

Reading mRNA codons at the ribosome to assemble a protein from amino acids.

What is a codon?

A 3-nucleotide unit of mRNA that codes for one amino acid (or a start/stop signal).

Start and stop codons?

Start = AUG (also codes methionine); stop = UAA, UAG, UGA (no amino acid).

Phases of the cell cycle?

Interphase (G₁, S, G₂) then mitosis (M) and cytokinesis. DNA is copied during S phase.

Order of mitosis phases?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT), then cytokinesis.

When does crossing over occur?

Prophase I of meiosis — homologous chromosomes swap segments, boosting genetic diversity.

Diploid vs haploid?

Diploid (2n) has paired chromosomes (body cells, 46 in humans); haploid (n) has one set (gametes, 23).

What is an allele?

One of the alternative versions of a gene at a given locus (e.g., B vs b).

Dominant vs recessive?

A dominant allele is expressed with just one copy; a recessive needs two copies to show.

Monohybrid cross ratios?

Bb × Bb gives a 3:1 phenotype ratio and a 1:2:1 genotype ratio.

What does a test cross do?

Crosses an unknown dominant phenotype with a homozygous recessive to reveal the genotype.

Sex-linked trait — who is more affected?

Males — they have one X, so a single recessive X-linked allele (e.g., colorblindness) shows.

Function of the kidneys?

Filter blood to make urine, removing waste and balancing water, ions, and pH.

Function of the liver?

Detoxifies blood, makes bile, stores glycogen, and regulates blood glucose.

Antagonistic muscle pair example?

Biceps and triceps — one contracts while the other relaxes to move a joint.

Arteries vs veins?

Arteries carry blood away from the heart (high pressure); veins return it (low pressure, valves).

Red vs white blood cells?

Red cells carry oxygen (hemoglobin); white cells fight infection (immunity).

Innate vs adaptive immunity?

Innate is fast and nonspecific (skin, phagocytes); adaptive is specific and remembers (antibodies, T/B cells).

What is an enzyme's active site?

The region where substrate binds; its shape gives the enzyme substrate specificity (lock-and-key).

How does temperature affect enzymes?

Rate rises with temperature to an optimum, then falls as the enzyme denatures and loses shape.

What is a competitive inhibitor?

A molecule that competes with substrate for the active site; more substrate can overcome it.

ATP — what is it?

Adenosine triphosphate, the cell's energy currency; energy is released when its phosphate bond breaks to ADP.

Products of glycolysis?

2 pyruvate, a net 2 ATP, and 2 NADH per glucose — in the cytoplasm, no oxygen needed.

Anaerobic respiration in humans?

Fermentation converts pyruvate to lactic acid, regenerating NAD⁺ for glycolysis without oxygen.

Autotroph vs heterotroph?

Autotrophs make their own food (plants, via photosynthesis); heterotrophs consume others for energy.

What is an ecosystem trophic level?

A feeding level — producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers — with ~10% energy passed up each step.

Bacteria vs virus?

Bacteria are living prokaryotic cells; viruses are non-living particles that must hijack a host cell to replicate.

Gram-positive vs gram-negative?

Gram-positive have thick peptidoglycan (stain purple); gram-negative have thin walls plus an outer membrane (stain pink).

Avogadro's number — value and use?

6.02 × 10²³ particles per mole; converts between moles and individual atoms or molecules.

Empirical vs molecular formula?

Empirical is the simplest whole-number ratio (CH₂O); molecular is the actual count (C₆H₁₂O₆).

Quantum numbers — what does n give?

The principal quantum number n gives the energy level (shell) and roughly the size of an orbital.

Order of orbital filling?

Aufbau: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d… (lowest energy first).

Hund's rule?

Electrons fill degenerate orbitals singly with parallel spins before pairing up.

Pauli exclusion principle?

No two electrons in an atom share all four quantum numbers; an orbital holds at most 2 electrons (opposite spins).

Periodic trend: ionization energy?

Increases up and to the right — it's harder to remove an electron from small, electronegative atoms.

Sigma vs pi bond?

A sigma bond is end-to-end overlap (single bond); pi bonds are side-to-side (in double/triple bonds).

VSEPR: 4 bonding pairs shape?

Tetrahedral, ~109.5° bond angles (e.g., CH₄).

Polar vs nonpolar molecule?

Polar has an uneven charge distribution (net dipole, e.g., H₂O); nonpolar is symmetric (e.g., CO₂).

Strongest intermolecular force?

Ion-dipole > hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > London dispersion (weakest).

Hydrogen bonding requires?

H bonded to N, O, or F interacting with a lone pair on N, O, or F of another molecule.

STP conditions and molar volume?

0 °C (273 K) and 1 atm; 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.4 L.

Dalton's law of partial pressures?

Total pressure of a gas mixture equals the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.

Kw at 25 °C?

The ion product of water, Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴.

pH of a strong acid (0.01 M HCl)?

pH = −log(0.01) = 2, since a strong acid fully dissociates.

What is a buffer?

A weak acid/base pair that resists pH change when small amounts of acid or base are added.

Equilibrium constant Keq meaning?

Keq = [products]/[reactants] at equilibrium; large Keq favors products, small favors reactants.

Effect of a catalyst?

Lowers activation energy and speeds both directions equally — it does NOT shift equilibrium.

Endothermic — sign of ΔH?

ΔH is positive (heat absorbed); exothermic ΔH is negative (heat released).

Entropy (ΔS) — what increases it?

More disorder: solid → liquid → gas, dissolving, more moles of gas, higher temperature.

Gibbs free energy — spontaneity?

ΔG = ΔH − TΔS; reaction is spontaneous when ΔG < 0.

Oxidation number of O and H (usual)?

Oxygen is usually −2, hydrogen +1 (H is −1 in metal hydrides).

Oxidizing vs reducing agent?

The oxidizing agent is reduced (gains electrons); the reducing agent is oxidized (loses electrons).

Anode vs cathode (galvanic cell)?

Oxidation at the anode (−), reduction at the cathode (+); 'AN OX, RED CAT'.

Rate of reaction depends on?

Concentration, temperature, surface area, and catalysts (collision theory).

Markovnikov vs anti-Markovnikov?

Markovnikov: H adds to the carbon with more H's (acid). Anti-Markovnikov: opposite, via radicals/HBr + peroxide or hydroboration.

Product of hydroboration-oxidation?

Anti-Markovnikov alcohol with syn addition — OH on the less-substituted carbon.

SN1 reaction stereochemistry?

Racemization — the planar carbocation is attacked from both faces, giving both enantiomers.

Polar protic vs aprotic — which favors SN2?

Polar aprotic (acetone, DMSO) favors SN2; polar protic (water, alcohols) favors SN1.

Zaitsev's rule?

Elimination favors the more substituted (more stable) alkene as the major product.

E2 requires what geometry?

Anti-periplanar — the H and leaving group 180° apart so the orbitals align in one concerted step.

What is a carbocation stability order?

3° > 2° > 1° > methyl — more alkyl groups donate electron density and stabilize the positive charge.

Cis vs trans isomer?

Geometric isomers across a double bond/ring: cis = same side, trans = opposite sides.

R vs S configuration?

Rank the 4 groups by priority (CIP); lowest in back, 1→2→3 clockwise = R, counterclockwise = S.

Meso compound?

A molecule with stereocenters but an internal mirror plane — it is achiral overall (optically inactive).

Optical activity — what shows it?

Chiral molecules rotate plane-polarized light; a racemic mix or meso compound does not.

Conjugation — why does it matter?

Alternating single/double bonds delocalize electrons, lowering energy (stability) and shifting absorption.

Electrophilic aromatic substitution?

Benzene reacts with electrophiles (e.g., nitration, halogenation) by substituting an H, keeping aromaticity.

Ortho/para vs meta directors?

Activating groups (−OH, −NH₂, alkyl) direct ortho/para; deactivating (−NO₂, −COOH) direct meta.

Alcohol oxidation products?

1° → aldehyde → carboxylic acid; 2° → ketone; 3° alcohols resist oxidation.

Most reactive toward nucleophilic acyl substitution?

Acid chloride > anhydride > ester > amide (best to worst leaving group).

What does Grignard reagent do?

R–MgX acts as a carbon nucleophile, adding to carbonyls to form (after workup) alcohols.

IR: broad peak ~3300 cm⁻¹?

O–H stretch (alcohol or carboxylic acid).

IR: strong peak ~1700 cm⁻¹?

C=O carbonyl stretch (aldehyde, ketone, acid, ester).

¹³C NMR tells you?

The number of unique carbon environments in a molecule.

Degree of unsaturation — what it counts?

Rings plus pi bonds; each ring or double bond = 1 degree of unsaturation.

Alkane vs alkene vs alkyne?

Alkane = single bonds (CₙH₂ₙ₊₂); alkene = one C=C; alkyne = one C≡C.

Hydroxyl group vs carbonyl?

Hydroxyl is −OH (alcohols); carbonyl is C=O (aldehydes, ketones).

Ester vs amide bond?

Ester links a carbonyl to −OR; amide links a carbonyl to −NR₂ (the peptide bond).

Saturated vs unsaturated?

Saturated = all single C–C bonds (max H); unsaturated = has double/triple bonds (fewer H).

What is tautomerization?

Rapid isomer interconversion by moving a proton + double bond, e.g., keto ⇌ enol.

PAT — how long and how many items?

90 items in 60 minutes — about 40 seconds per item, so it is a speed test.

Apertures — can the object rotate while passing?

No — it may be turned before insertion, but it must pass straight through without rotating.

Angle ranking — best strategy?

Compare angles in pairs and lock in the obvious smallest and largest first, then place the middle two.

Cube counting — which faces are never painted?

The hidden bottom faces and any faces touching another cube — only exposed outer faces are painted.

3D Form Development task?

Fold a flat 2D pattern into a 3D figure; track which edges meet using distinctive markings.

Paper folding — paper folded twice, one punch?

Up to 4 holes — each fold doubles the layers (1→2→4), so one punch makes 4 holes.

Top, front, end views — what are they?

Orthographic projections; in View Recognition you're given two and pick the missing third.

Which PAT subtests are most learnable?

Keyholes (apertures), hole punching (paper folding), and cube counting respond fastest to practice.

Why does the PAT matter for dentistry?

It measures 3D spatial visualization — the skill behind reading radiographs and shaping restorations.

Is outside knowledge needed on the PAT?

No — it is pure spatial reasoning; only object manipulation and visualization skills are tested.

Keyhole — first thing to check?

Match the object's most distinctive silhouette; eliminate openings of the wrong size or shape.

Cube counting — count the cubes first?

Yes — reconstruct the full solid (including hidden cubes) before tallying painted faces.

PAT — penalty for guessing?

None — answer every item; the DAT has no penalty for wrong answers.

3D form — how to rule out a choice?

Use a unique mark or notch — if a folded choice puts it on the wrong face, eliminate it.

Reviewing PAT directions in advance?

Do it — knowing the instructions cold saves time you'd otherwise lose decoding them on test day.

View recognition — what do dashed lines show?

Hidden edges that are behind the visible surface in that orthographic view.

Reading — how much time per question?

About 72 seconds (50 items in 60 minutes), so most high scorers map rather than read every word.

What is 'search and locate' reading?

Skim for structure, note where major facts live, then jump to the exact lines a question asks about.

Detail/explicit question — strategy?

Find the exact line in the passage; never answer a stated-fact question from memory.

Tone of most science passages?

Usually neutral and informational — beware reading them as persuasive or emotional.

Inference question — the test?

The right choice traces to a specific line; if you can't point to it, reject it.

Strengthen vs weaken question?

Strengthen = adds support for the claim; weaken = introduces evidence against it.

Why are 'all/none/only' answers risky?

Absolute language is rarely supported by a passage's hedged claims — often a trap.

Vocabulary-in-context — best clue?

The surrounding sentence and its positive/negative charge, not the word's most common meaning.

Do you need a science background?

No — the passages are self-contained; every answer comes from the text alone.

Primary purpose question asks?

Why the author wrote the passage overall — inform, describe, argue — covering the whole text.

Application/extension question?

Apply the passage's idea to a new situation; stay consistent with what the text established.

Best way to handle dense terminology?

Don't memorize it — note where each term is defined so you can relocate it for a question.

Simple vs compound interest?

Simple: I = Prt. Compound: A = P(1 + r/n)ⁿᵗ — interest earns interest.

Distance-rate-time formula?

distance = rate × time (d = rt); rearrange to find rate or time.

Combined work rate?

Add individual rates (1/a + 1/b); time together = 1 ÷ (sum of rates).

Average (mean) of a data set?

Sum of values ÷ number of values.

Range of a data set?

Largest value minus smallest value.

How to find a percent of a number?

Multiply: 20% of 80 = 0.20 × 80 = 16.

Ratio — splitting a quantity?

Add the ratio parts for the total share count, then multiply each part by (total ÷ part-sum).

Area of a rectangle and a triangle?

Rectangle = length × width; triangle = ½ × base × height.

Volume of a cube and a rectangular box?

Cube = s³; box = length × width × height.

Volume of a cylinder?

V = πr²h (base area times height).

Surface area of a cube?

6s² — six square faces, each s by s.

Sum of interior angles of a polygon?

(n − 2) × 180°, where n is the number of sides.

Interior angles of a triangle?

They always sum to 180°.

Special right triangle 3-4-5?

A common Pythagorean triple — legs 3 and 4 give hypotenuse 5 (also 5-12-13).

30-60-90 side ratio?

1 : √3 : 2 (short leg : long leg : hypotenuse).

45-45-90 side ratio?

1 : 1 : √2 (legs equal; hypotenuse is leg × √2).

Slope-intercept form?

y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.

Slope between two points?

m = (y₂ − y₁) ÷ (x₂ − x₁), the rise over the run.

FOIL — what's it for?

Multiplying two binomials: (a+b)(c+d) = ac + ad + bc + bd.

Exponent rule: (xᵃ)ᵇ?

Multiply the exponents: (xᵃ)ᵇ = xᵃᵇ.

Exponent rule: xᵃ ÷ xᵇ?

Subtract the exponents: xᵃ⁻ᵇ.

x⁰ and x⁻ⁿ?

x⁰ = 1 (x ≠ 0); x⁻ⁿ = 1 ÷ xⁿ.

Logarithm definition?

log_b(x) = y means bʸ = x; logs convert exponential relationships to linear ones.

Factorial n! meaning?

The product of all positive integers up to n: 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.

Permutation vs combination?

Permutation counts ordered arrangements (nPr); combination counts unordered selections (nCr).

Probability of independent events (AND)?

Multiply the probabilities: P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B).

Probability of mutually exclusive events (OR)?

Add them: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).

Complement of an event?

P(not A) = 1 − P(A).

Convert a fraction to a percent?

Divide and multiply by 100: 3/4 = 0.75 = 75%.

Cross-multiply a proportion?

a/b = c/d means ad = bc; solve for the unknown.

Mean vs median — when do they differ?

They differ when data is skewed; the median resists outliers, the mean is pulled toward them.

Circumference vs area of a circle?

Circumference = 2πr (the distance around); area = πr² (the space inside).

Pythagorean theorem — when to use?

Right triangles only: a² + b² = c², where c is the hypotenuse.

Diagonal of a square (side s)?

s√2 — from the Pythagorean theorem on the two equal legs.

Absolute value meaning?

|x| is the distance from zero; always nonnegative (|−7| = 7).

Solving |x| = a?

Two solutions: x = a or x = −a (when a > 0).

Discriminant b² − 4ac tells you?

Sign of the discriminant gives the number of real roots: positive = 2, zero = 1, negative = 0.