- Phoneme
- The smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning between two words. Swapping /p/ for /b/ in 'pat' vs 'bat' changes meaning, so /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English.
- Allophone
- A predictable, context-dependent variant of a single phoneme that does not change meaning. The aspirated [pʰ] in 'pin' and unaspirated [p] in 'spin' are allophones of /p/.
- Minimal pair
- Two words that differ in exactly one phoneme yet have distinct meanings (e.g., 'pat' / 'bat'), proving those sounds are separate phonemes in the language.
- Grapheme
- The smallest written symbol (a letter or letter combination) that represents a phoneme in a writing system. English spelling is not strictly one grapheme per phoneme.
- Phonetics
- The study of the physical production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds, independent of any particular language's sound system.
- Phonology
- The study of how sounds pattern and contrast within a particular language — which sound differences signal meaning and which are predictable variants.
- Articulatory phonetics
- The branch of phonetics that describes how speech sounds are physically produced by the vocal organs — the lips, tongue, teeth, and vocal folds.
- Voicing
- Whether the vocal folds vibrate during a sound. /b/, /d/, /z/ are voiced; /p/, /t/, /s/ are voiceless, though otherwise articulated similarly.
- International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
- A standardized system that assigns one consistent symbol to each distinct speech sound across languages, allowing pronunciation to be transcribed unambiguously.
- Prosody (suprasegmentals)
- Features that span more than a single sound — stress, pitch, rhythm, and intonation — that carry meaning above the level of individual segments.
- Intonation
- The rise and fall of pitch across an utterance, which can signal sentence type (statement vs question), emphasis, and speaker attitude.
- Stress
- The relative prominence given to a syllable through greater loudness, length, or pitch; English uses stress to distinguish words like 'REcord' (noun) from 'reCORD' (verb).
- Assimilation
- A phonological process in which a sound becomes more like a neighboring sound, as when /n/ in 'input' becomes [m] before the bilabial /p/.
- Epenthesis
- The insertion of an extra sound into a word, such as a Spanish-speaking learner saying 'eschool' for 'school' to fit the L1 syllable structure.
- Deletion (elision)
- A phonological process that removes a sound from a word, such as dropping the /t/ in 'softly' in rapid speech.
- Metathesis
- A phonological process that reorders sounds within a word, as in pronouncing 'ask' as 'aks.'
- Phonemic awareness
- The specific ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual phonemes in spoken words; a strong predictor of early reading success.
- Phonological process
- A systematic, rule-governed change a sound undergoes in a given environment, such as assimilation, deletion, epenthesis, or metathesis.
- Morpheme
- The smallest unit of language that carries meaning. 'Cats' contains two morphemes: the root 'cat' and the plural '-s.'
- Free morpheme
- A morpheme that can stand alone as a word, such as 'book,' 'run,' or 'happy.'
- Bound morpheme
- A morpheme that cannot stand alone and must attach to another morpheme, such as the prefix 'un-' or the suffix '-ed.'
- Inflectional morpheme
- A bound morpheme that marks a grammatical feature (plural '-s,' past '-ed,' possessive '-'s') without changing the word's part of speech or core meaning.
- Derivational morpheme
- A bound morpheme that creates a new word or changes part of speech, such as '-ly' turning the adjective 'quick' into the adverb 'quickly.'
- Root (base)
- The core morpheme of a word that carries its central meaning and to which affixes attach, such as 'happy' in 'unhappiness.'
- Bound root
- A root that carries core meaning but cannot stand alone, such as '-ceive' in 'receive,' 'conceive,' and 'deceive.'
- Prefix
- A bound morpheme attached to the beginning of a root, such as 'un-' in 'unkind' or 'pre-' in 'preview.'
- Suffix
- A bound morpheme attached to the end of a root, such as '-ness' in 'kindness' or '-ed' in 'walked.'
- Compounding
- Word formation that joins two or more whole words into one, such as 'blackboard,' 'sunlight,' or 'toothbrush.'
- Blending
- Word formation that fuses parts of two words into one, such as 'brunch' from 'breakfast' + 'lunch' or 'smog' from 'smoke' + 'fog.'
- Conversion
- Word formation that shifts a word to a new part of speech without adding any affix, as when the noun 'email' becomes the verb 'to email.'
- Overgeneralization
- Applying a regular morphological rule to an irregular form, producing errors like 'foots' for 'feet' or 'runned' for 'ran' — a normal sign of rule learning.
- Morphology
- The study of word structure — how morphemes combine to form words and how words inflect for grammatical features.
- Cognate
- A word in two languages sharing a common origin and similar form and meaning, such as English 'family' and Spanish 'familia,' useful for vocabulary transfer.
- Syntax
- The study of the rules that govern how words combine into phrases and sentences in a language.
- Phrase structure
- The hierarchical way words group into phrases (noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase) that function as units within a sentence.
- Noun phrase
- A group of words built around a head noun that functions as a unit, such as 'the tall student' serving as a sentence subject.
- Verb phrase
- A group of words built around a main verb, including the verb and its objects or complements, such as 'read the book.'
- Prepositional phrase
- A phrase beginning with a preposition and its object, such as 'in the morning' or 'on the table,' often functioning adverbially or adjectivally.
- Constituent
- A word or group of words that functions as a single syntactic unit and can be moved, replaced, or coordinated as a whole.
- Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)
- The canonical basic word order of English, as in 'The girl (S) kicked (V) the ball (O).'
- Recursion
- The syntactic property of embedding structures within structures of the same type indefinitely, as in 'I know that she said that he left.'
- Deep structure
- In transformational grammar, the underlying abstract syntactic representation of a sentence before transformations apply.
- Surface structure
- In transformational grammar, the final form of a sentence as it is actually spoken or written, derived from deep structure by transformations.
- Transformation
- A syntactic rule that converts an underlying (deep) structure into a surface structure, such as forming a question or a passive from a declarative.
- Subordinate (dependent) clause
- A clause with a subject and verb that cannot stand alone because it is introduced by a subordinator, as in 'Because it was raining.'
- Independent (main) clause
- A clause that contains a subject and verb and can stand alone as a complete sentence.
- Structural (syntactic) ambiguity
- Ambiguity that arises because a sentence has two possible grammatical structures, as in 'Visiting relatives can be boring.'
- Word order
- The conventional sequence of subjects, verbs, and objects in a language; languages differ (English SVO, Japanese SOV), a frequent source of L1 transfer.
- Agreement (concord)
- The grammatical matching of features such as number or person between words, as in subject-verb agreement: 'she walks' vs 'they walk.'
- Semantics
- The study of meaning in language — how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning, independent of context of use.
- Denotation
- A word's direct, literal dictionary meaning, as opposed to its emotional or cultural associations.
- Connotation
- The emotional or cultural associations a word carries beyond its literal meaning; 'thrifty' is positive while 'stingy' is negative though both relate to saving.
- Synonymy
- The semantic relation in which different words have the same or very similar meaning, such as 'big' and 'large.'
- Antonymy
- The semantic relation of opposite meaning between words, such as 'hot' and 'cold' or 'big' and 'small.'
- Gradable antonyms
- Opposites that lie on a scale and allow comparison and intermediate degrees, such as 'big' / 'small' (something can be 'bigger' or 'fairly big').
- Hyponymy
- The semantic relation in which a specific term (hyponym, e.g., 'rose') falls under a broader category term (hypernym, e.g., 'flower').
- Hypernym
- A superordinate term whose meaning includes that of more specific terms, such as 'flower' relative to 'rose' and 'tulip.'
- Polysemy
- A single word form with multiple related meanings, such as 'head' (of a body, of an organization, of a bed).
- Homonymy
- A single word form with multiple unrelated meanings, such as 'bank' (financial institution) and 'bank' (side of a river).
- Homophones
- Words that sound the same but differ in meaning and often spelling, such as 'their,' 'there,' and 'they're.'
- Homographs
- Words that are spelled the same but differ in meaning and sometimes pronunciation, such as 'lead' (to guide) and 'lead' (the metal).
- Semantic role (thematic role)
- The role a participant plays in the event a verb describes, such as agent, patient, instrument, or goal.
- Agent
- The semantic role of the participant that intentionally performs an action, such as 'the chef' in 'The chef cooked the meal.'
- Patient (theme)
- The semantic role of the participant that undergoes or is affected by the action, such as 'the meal' in 'The chef cooked the meal.'
- Lexical ambiguity
- Ambiguity caused by a single word having more than one meaning, such as 'bank' or 'bat,' resolvable through context.
- Semantic field
- A set of words grouped by a shared area of meaning, such as colors, kinship terms, or cooking verbs.
- Idiom
- A fixed multi-word expression whose meaning cannot be predicted from its individual words, such as 'kick the bucket' meaning 'to die.'
- Metaphor
- Figurative language that describes one thing in terms of another to suggest a likeness, such as 'time is money.'
- Pragmatics
- The study of how context, speaker intention, and social factors shape the meaning and use of language beyond literal sentence meaning.
- Speech act
- An utterance used to perform an action — requesting, promising, apologizing — as when 'Can you pass the salt?' functions as a request, not a question.
- Direct speech act
- An utterance whose form matches its function, such as using an imperative ('Pass the salt') to make a request.
- Indirect speech act
- An utterance whose form differs from its function, such as using a question ('Can you pass the salt?') to make a request.
- Conversational implicature
- Meaning a listener infers from context and the cooperative principle beyond the literal words, as inferring 'no' from 'I have to work.'
- Cooperative principle
- Grice's principle that speakers and listeners cooperate by following maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner to communicate efficiently.
- Maxim of quantity
- Grice's maxim that speakers should give as much information as required for the exchange, but no more.
- Maxim of quality
- Grice's maxim that speakers should be truthful — not say what they believe false or lack evidence for.
- Maxim of relation (relevance)
- Grice's maxim that contributions to a conversation should be relevant to the topic at hand.
- Maxim of manner
- Grice's maxim that speakers should be clear, brief, and orderly, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.
- Deixis
- Expressions like 'here,' 'now,' 'this,' and 'you' whose reference depends entirely on the context of the utterance (who is speaking, where, and when).
- Pragmatic competence
- The ability to use language appropriately in social context, including politeness, turn-taking, register, and making requests.
- Presupposition
- Background information a speaker assumes to be true for an utterance to make sense, as 'My brother is here' presupposes the speaker has a brother.
- Register
- The variety of language a speaker selects according to the social situation and degree of formality, such as formal academic wording versus casual speech.
- Discourse
- Language above the level of the single sentence — connected spoken or written text such as a conversation, narrative, or essay.
- Discourse analysis
- The study of how sentences and utterances connect into coherent, organized stretches of spoken or written language.
- Cohesion
- The grammatical and lexical links that tie a text together, such as pronoun reference, conjunctions, and repetition of key words.
- Reference (cohesive device)
- A cohesive tie in which a word such as a pronoun points back to an earlier noun, as 'she' and 'them' refer to 'Maria' and 'her keys.'
- Coherence
- The underlying logical and meaningful connectedness of a text that makes it sensible to a reader, beyond surface cohesive ties.
- Conjunctive cohesion
- Cohesion created by connectives such as 'however,' 'therefore,' and 'in addition' that signal logical relationships between ideas across a text.
- Discourse marker
- A word or phrase such as 'well,' 'so,' 'anyway,' or 'you know' that organizes talk and signals how upcoming text relates to what came before.
- Turn-taking
- The organized system by which speakers in a conversation alternate, knowing when to start, yield, and hold the floor.
- Sociolinguistics
- The study of how language varies and changes in relation to social factors such as region, class, ethnicity, gender, and context.
- Dialect
- A regional or social variety of a language with its own systematic vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation; all dialects are rule-governed.
- Idiolect
- The unique, individual way a single person uses language, including personal word choices and speech habits.
- Sociolect
- A language variety associated with a particular social class or group rather than a geographic region.
- Standard variety
- The prestige dialect codified for formal, academic, and public use (e.g., Standard English); one dialect among many, not linguistically 'better.'
- Code-switching
- Alternating between two languages or varieties within a conversation or even a single sentence, typically reflecting bilingual skill, not deficiency.
- Language variation
- The principle that all languages vary systematically across speakers and contexts, and that every dialect is rule-governed and equally valid linguistically.
- Pidgin
- A simplified contact language that develops so speakers of different native languages can communicate; it has no native speakers.
- Creole
- A stable, fully developed language that arises when a pidgin becomes the native language of a community and expands in vocabulary and grammar.
- African American English (AAE)
- A systematic, rule-governed dialect of English; teachers should validate it while adding the standard academic variety (an additive approach).
- Krashen's Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
- Distinguishes acquisition (a subconscious process of picking up language through meaningful communication) from learning (conscious study of rules).
- Acquisition (Krashen)
- The subconscious, natural process of internalizing language through meaningful interaction, similar to how children gain their first language.
- Learning (Krashen)
- The conscious process of studying and knowing grammar rules; for Krashen it produces a 'monitor' but not spontaneous fluency.
- Krashen's Input Hypothesis (i + 1)
- Holds that acquisition occurs when learners understand input slightly beyond their current level ('i + 1'), made comprehensible through context and support.
- Comprehensible input
- Language a learner can understand though it is slightly beyond their current level, made clear through visuals, gestures, realia, and context.
- Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis
- Says the learned system acts as an 'editor' (the monitor) that checks and corrects output when the learner has time, focus, and knowledge of the rule.
- Krashen's Natural Order Hypothesis
- Claims grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable sequence that does not match the order in which they are taught.
- Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis
- Proposes that high anxiety, low motivation, or low self-confidence raise a mental filter that blocks comprehensible input from being acquired.
- Affective filter
- A metaphorical mental barrier raised by negative emotions (anxiety, low motivation) that impedes the intake of comprehensible input; lowering it aids acquisition.
- Comprehensible output
- Swain's idea that producing language (speaking and writing) pushes learners to notice gaps and refine their developing system, complementing input.
- Output Hypothesis (Swain)
- Argues that producing language, not just receiving input, is necessary for acquisition because it forces learners to process language for production.
- BICS
- Basic interpersonal communicative skills — the context-embedded, conversational language ELs typically develop within about one to three years.
- CALP
- Cognitive academic language proficiency — the decontextualized, cognitively demanding academic language that typically takes about five to seven years to develop.
- BICS vs CALP gap
- The expected difference between an EL's developed conversational fluency and still-developing academic language; not a deficit or learning disability.
- Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)
- Cummins's view that languages share an underlying cognitive proficiency, so skills and concepts learned in the L1 transfer to the L2.
- Cummins's quadrant framework
- A matrix crossing cognitive demand (undemanding to demanding) with contextual support (context-embedded to context-reduced) to plan instruction.
- Context-embedded task
- A task supported by abundant contextual cues — gestures, visuals, shared situation — making language easier to understand, ideal for early ELs.
- Context-reduced task
- A task with few contextual cues that relies on language alone, such as reading a textbook; cognitively demanding and typical of academic work.
- Threshold Hypothesis (Cummins)
- Proposes that learners must reach a threshold of proficiency in their languages to gain the cognitive benefits of bilingualism and avoid disadvantages.
- Additive bilingualism
- A context in which a second language is added while the first language and culture are maintained and valued, associated with cognitive benefits.
- Subtractive bilingualism
- A context in which the second language replaces the first, leading to L1 loss and often weaker outcomes than additive bilingualism.
- Interlanguage
- Selinker's term for the learner's evolving, systematic language system that has features of both the L1 and L2 and its own internal rules.
- Fossilization
- The permanent stabilization of non-target-like forms in a learner's interlanguage even with continued exposure and instruction.
- Language transfer
- The influence of the L1 on the L2; positive transfer aids learning when structures align, while negative transfer (interference) causes errors.
- Positive transfer
- When an L1 feature that matches the L2 helps acquisition, such as cognate vocabulary easing word learning between Spanish and English.
- Negative transfer (interference)
- When an L1 feature that differs from the L2 produces errors, such as applying Spanish syllable rules to say 'eschool' for 'school.'
- Contrastive analysis
- An approach that compares L1 and L2 structures to predict where differences will cause learning difficulty; useful but an incomplete predictor of errors.
- Error analysis
- The systematic study of learners' errors to reveal their developing interlanguage rules, distinguishing developmental errors from transfer errors.
- Developmental error
- An error reflecting the natural sequence of acquiring the L2 (e.g., overgeneralizing '-ed'), made regardless of a learner's first language.
- Transfer of training
- One of Selinker's interlanguage processes, in which features of how a learner was taught show up as non-target-like patterns in their output.
- Universal Grammar (UG)
- Chomsky's theory that humans are born with innate, universal principles underlying all languages that guide first-language acquisition.
- Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
- Chomsky's hypothesized innate mental mechanism that enables children to acquire language rapidly from limited and imperfect input.
- Nativist (innatist) theory
- The view that language ability is largely innate; children are biologically predisposed to acquire language, as argued by Chomsky.
- Poverty of the stimulus
- Chomsky's argument that the language input children receive is too limited and imperfect to explain how fully they acquire grammar, implying innate knowledge.
- Critical period hypothesis
- The idea that there is an optimal window in early life for acquiring language natively, after which full native-like attainment becomes harder.
- Behaviorist theory
- The view (associated with Skinner) that language is learned through imitation, habit formation, and reinforcement of correct responses.
- Imitation and reinforcement
- Behaviorist mechanisms of language learning: children copy adult speech and are reinforced for correct forms; critiqued for not explaining novel utterances.
- Interactionist theory
- The view that language develops through the interplay of innate ability and meaningful social interaction with more competent speakers.
- Social interactionism
- A perspective (linked to Vygotsky) emphasizing that language develops through socially supported, meaningful interaction rather than innate structure alone.
- Connectionism
- A theory that language is learned as the brain detects statistical patterns and strengthens associations through repeated exposure, without innate rules.
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- Vygotsky's gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance from a more capable peer or teacher.
- Scaffolding
- Temporary, adjustable support (modeling, visuals, sentence frames, questioning) that helps a learner perform within the ZPD and is gradually removed.
- Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky)
- The view that learning is socially mediated; higher mental functions, including language, develop first through interaction, then become internalized.
- Mediation
- In sociocultural theory, the use of cultural tools — especially language — and interaction with others to support and shape cognitive development.
- More knowledgeable other (MKO)
- In Vygotsky's framework, a teacher, peer, or adult with greater skill who guides a learner through the zone of proximal development.
- Stages of second-language acquisition
- The widely cited sequence: preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency.
- Silent (preproduction) period
- An early stage in which learners absorb language and respond nonverbally before producing much speech; developmentally normal, not a deficit.
- Early production stage
- An SLA stage in which learners produce one- or two-word responses and short memorized phrases while still relying heavily on context.
- Speech emergence stage
- An SLA stage in which learners produce simple sentences and longer phrases, with growing vocabulary but still frequent errors.
- Intermediate fluency stage
- An SLA stage in which learners produce more complex sentences, express opinions, and use language for academic tasks with fewer errors.
- Advanced fluency stage
- An SLA stage approaching native-like proficiency across social and academic contexts, often requiring several years to reach.
- First-language (L1) acquisition
- The process by which children naturally acquire their native language through exposure and interaction, typically completing core grammar by about age five.
- Second-language (L2) acquisition (SLA)
- The process of learning an additional language after the first; influenced by age, L1, motivation, input, and affective and social factors.
- Telegraphic speech
- An early L1 stage in which children produce short utterances using mainly content words ('want cookie'), omitting function words and inflections.
- Babbling stage
- An early L1 stage in which infants produce repeated consonant-vowel sounds ('bababa'), practicing the sounds of their language environment.
- Holophrastic (one-word) stage
- An early L1 stage in which a child uses single words to convey whole ideas, such as 'milk' to mean 'I want milk.'
- Cognitive factors in language development
- Influences such as memory, attention, prior knowledge, and metalinguistic awareness that shape how efficiently a learner acquires a language.
- Linguistic factors in language development
- Influences from the learner's L1 and the target language, including how similar or different their sound systems, grammar, and writing systems are.
- Physical factors in language development
- Influences such as hearing, vision, articulation ability, and overall health that can affect a learner's language development.
- Affective factors
- Emotional influences on language learning — motivation, attitude, anxiety, and self-confidence — that can raise or lower the affective filter.
- Motivation (integrative vs instrumental)
- A key affective factor: integrative motivation is the desire to join a language community; instrumental motivation is learning for practical goals like a job.
- Language anxiety
- Tension and apprehension specific to using a second language, which can raise the affective filter and impede both performance and acquisition.
- Self-confidence (in SLA)
- A learner's belief in their ability to succeed in the target language; higher self-confidence lowers the affective filter and supports risk-taking.
- Age and language acquisition
- A factor in SLA: younger learners tend to reach more native-like pronunciation, while older learners often learn faster initially in some domains.
- Sociocultural factors
- Influences such as a learner's cultural background, community attitudes, family support, and the status of their L1 that shape language development.
- Political factors in language development
- Influences such as language policies, official-language laws, and program funding that affect ELs' access to and support for language development.
- Acculturation
- The process of adapting to a new culture; Schumann argued that greater social and psychological distance from the target culture slows SLA.
- Schumann's Acculturation Model
- Proposes that L2 acquisition success depends on the social and psychological distance between the learner and the target-language community.
- Learning style
- An individual's preferred way of taking in and processing information (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which teachers can accommodate to support ELs.
- Aptitude (language aptitude)
- An individual's natural capacity for learning languages, including phonemic coding, grammatical sensitivity, and rote memory ability.
- Prior schooling (L1 literacy)
- A learner's education and literacy in their first language; strong L1 literacy transfers and accelerates L2 academic development (CUP).
- Funds of knowledge
- The accumulated knowledge, skills, and cultural resources a student brings from home and community, which teachers can draw on to support learning.
- Identity and investment
- Norton's idea that learners invest in a language when they see it building a desired identity and social membership, shaping their engagement and success.
- Simultaneous bilingualism
- Acquiring two languages from birth or very early childhood, developing both as first languages rather than learning one after the other.
- Sequential bilingualism
- Acquiring a second language after the first is already established, the typical situation for school-age English learners.
- Metalinguistic awareness
- The ability to think about and reflect on language as an object — its sounds, structures, and rules — which bilingual learners often develop strongly.
- Translanguaging
- The practice of bilinguals fluidly drawing on their full linguistic repertoire across languages to make meaning, increasingly valued as a classroom resource.
- Productive vs receptive skills
- Receptive skills (listening, reading) involve understanding language; productive skills (speaking, writing) involve generating it, often developing later.
- Long-term English learner
- A student who has been in U.S. schools for many years yet has not reached English proficiency, often due to inconsistent or interrupted support.
- Heritage language learner
- A learner with a personal or family connection to a language other than English, often with strong listening/speaking but limited literacy in it.
- Newcomer
- A recently arrived English learner in the early stages of acquiring English, who benefits from a supportive, low-anxiety, comprehensible-input environment.
- Comprehensible input vs intake
- Input is the language a learner is exposed to; intake is the portion the learner actually processes and internalizes, which input alone does not guarantee.
- Negotiation of meaning
- Interactional work — clarification requests, confirmation checks, rephrasing — through which speakers adjust language to make input comprehensible.
- Caretaker (child-directed) speech
- The simplified, exaggerated, repetitive speech adults use with young children, thought to support first-language acquisition.
- Foreigner talk
- The simplified speech native speakers often use with non-native speakers, which can make input more comprehensible when not oversimplified.
- Form-focused instruction
- Teaching that draws learners' attention to specific language forms (grammar, vocabulary) within meaningful communication to support accuracy.
- Communicative competence
- Hymes's concept of the knowledge needed to use language appropriately, encompassing grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.
- Strategic competence
- The ability to use communication strategies — paraphrasing, gestures, asking for help — to overcome gaps and keep communication going.
- Sociolinguistic competence
- The ability to use language appropriately across social situations, registers, and cultural norms, part of communicative competence.
- Willingness to communicate
- A learner's readiness to enter into communication in the L2 when free to do so, influenced by confidence, anxiety, and the situation.
- Comprehension before production
- The principle, seen in both L1 and L2 development, that learners understand language before they can produce it, justifying a silent period.
- Receptive bilingualism
- The ability to understand a language well (listening, reading) while having limited ability to produce it (speaking, writing).
- Innatist vs behaviorist debate
- The contrast between Chomsky's view that language is largely innate and Skinner's view that it is learned through imitation and reinforcement.
- Fluency vs accuracy
- Fluency is producing language smoothly and meaningfully; accuracy is producing it correctly. Effective instruction balances both rather than over-correcting.
- Comprehensible input hypothesis vs interaction hypothesis
- Long's Interaction Hypothesis extends Krashen by arguing that conversational interaction and negotiation make input comprehensible and drive acquisition.
- Affective filter and motivation link
- Because high anxiety and low motivation raise the affective filter, building motivation and a safe climate directly increases the input that gets acquired.
- Krashen's five hypotheses
- Acquisition-Learning, Natural Order, Monitor, Input (i + 1), and Affective Filter — together Krashen's Monitor Model of second-language acquisition.
- Developmental vs interference errors
- Developmental errors reflect the natural acquisition sequence regardless of L1; interference errors stem from negative transfer of the learner's first language.
- Cognitive academic vs conversational language
- Cummins's core distinction: conversational BICS develops in 1–3 years, while academic CALP needed for school success takes about 5–7 years.
- Primary language support (L1 support)
- Using a learner's first language strategically — for clarification, concept development, and transfer — to advance both content learning and L2 development.
