- Comprehensible input
- Language a learner can understand though it's slightly beyond their current level (Krashen's i + 1), made clear through context, visuals, and scaffolding.
- Affective filter
- A mental barrier raised by anxiety, low motivation, or low confidence that blocks comprehensible input from being acquired.
- BICS
- Basic interpersonal communicative skills — everyday conversational language; develops in roughly 1–3 years (Cummins).
- CALP
- Cognitive academic language proficiency — the decontextualized academic language of school; develops over roughly 5–7 years (Cummins).
- Silent period
- An early stage in which a learner understands more than they produce — listening and comprehending while speaking little.
- Krashen's i + 1
- Input one step beyond the learner's current level ('i'); acquisition happens when '+1' input is made comprehensible.
- Acquisition vs. learning
- Krashen: acquisition is subconscious (like a first language); learning is conscious rule-study. Acquisition drives fluency.
- Monitor hypothesis
- Krashen's claim that consciously learned rules act only as an editor on output, not the source of fluent speech.
- Natural order hypothesis
- Krashen's claim that grammatical features are acquired in a predictable order that explicit teaching cannot fully change.
- Input hypothesis
- Krashen's claim that acquisition occurs when learners understand input slightly beyond their level (i + 1).
- Affective filter hypothesis
- Krashen's claim that anxiety, low motivation, or low confidence raise a filter blocking input; a safe class lowers it.
- Comprehensible output
- Swain's idea that producing language (speaking/writing) pushes learners to notice gaps and refine their English.
- Common underlying proficiency
- Cummins: a bilingual's two languages share a cognitive/academic base, so skills and concepts transfer from L1 to L2.
- Interdependence hypothesis
- Cummins: literacy and academic skills developed in the first language transfer to support the second language.
- Cummins's quadrants
- A model classifying tasks by cognitive demand and context support (context-embedded vs. context-reduced).
- Context-embedded language
- Language supported by gestures, objects, and shared situation, making meaning easier to grasp (low demand).
- Context-reduced language
- Decontextualized language where meaning is carried by words alone, typical of academic text (high demand).
- Zone of proximal development
- Vygotsky's gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance — the basis for scaffolding.
- ZPD
- Zone of proximal development — the space between independent ability and assisted ability where learning is optimal.
- Language transfer
- The influence of the first language on the second; can be positive (helps) or negative (causes errors).
- Positive transfer
- When a feature of the L1 helps L2 learning (e.g., shared cognates or reading strategies that carry over).
- Negative transfer (interference)
- When an L1 pattern causes an error in the L2 (e.g., applying L1 word order to English).
- Code-switching
- Alternating between two languages within one conversation or sentence — a normal, rule-governed bilingual practice.
- Interlanguage
- A learner's evolving in-between language system containing rules of both the L1 and the developing L2.
- Fossilization
- When non-target language forms become permanently established in a learner's interlanguage.
- Overgeneralization
- Applying a regular rule where it doesn't belong (e.g., 'foots,' 'goed') — a sign of rule learning, not mere error.
- Additive bilingualism
- Developing English while maintaining and growing the home language — the goal of dual-language models.
- Subtractive bilingualism
- Replacing the home language with English, so the L1 is lost as English is gained.
- Simultaneous bilingualism
- Acquiring two languages from birth or early childhood at roughly the same time.
- Sequential bilingualism
- Acquiring a second language after the first is established.
- First language (L1)
- A learner's home or native language, a resource that supports second-language and academic development.
- Second language (L2)
- A language learned in addition to the first — here, English for English learners.
- Socio-cultural approach
- View (Vygotsky) that language and learning develop through social interaction and cultural context.
- Pragmatics
- The social rules of language use — how meaning depends on context, audience, and purpose.
- Phonological awareness
- The ability to hear and manipulate the sounds of language (rhymes, syllables, phonemes) — a foundation for reading.
- Phoneme
- The smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning (e.g., /b/ vs. /p/ in 'bat' and 'pat').
- Phonemic awareness
- Awareness of individual phonemes — hearing and manipulating single sounds in spoken words.
- Decoding
- Translating printed words into sounds and meaning by applying letter-sound relationships.
- Morpheme
- The smallest unit of meaning in a language (e.g., 'un-,' 'happy,' '-ness' in 'unhappiness').
- Morphology
- The study of how morphemes combine to form words; helps learners infer word meaning.
- Cognates
- Words that look and mean alike across languages (e.g., 'family'/'familia') — a transfer resource.
- False cognates
- Words that look alike across languages but differ in meaning (e.g., 'embarazada' means pregnant, not embarrassed).
- Receptive language
- Language a learner understands (listening and reading) — often ahead of productive ability.
- Productive language
- Language a learner produces (speaking and writing).
- Stages of SLA
- Preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency.
- Preproduction stage
- The silent period: learners comprehend but produce little; respond nonverbally.
- Early production stage
- Learners use one- or two-word answers and short memorized phrases.
- Speech emergence stage
- Learners produce simple sentences and phrases with growing vocabulary.
- CA ELD Standards
- California's English Language Development Standards describing proficiency across Emerging, Expanding, and Bridging.
- Emerging level
- The first CA ELD proficiency level: beginning English; needs substantial support.
- Expanding level
- The middle CA ELD level: increasing English skills across more contexts; moderate support.
- Bridging level
- The advanced CA ELD level: approaching grade-level English; light, targeted support.
- Krashen
- Stephen Krashen — proposed five hypotheses of second-language acquisition (input, affective filter, monitor, etc.).
- Cummins
- Jim Cummins — known for BICS/CALP and the common underlying proficiency (interdependence) model.
- Vygotsky
- Lev Vygotsky — sociocultural theory and the zone of proximal development underpinning scaffolding.
- Swain
- Merrill Swain — proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis.
- Academic language
- The vocabulary, grammar, and discourse used in school texts and tasks (CALP).
- Social language
- Everyday conversational language used with peers and in informal settings (BICS).
- Literacy transfer
- Reading strategies and concepts learned in the first language support English literacy development.
- Comprehension strategies
- Predicting, questioning, summarizing, and monitoring used to understand text; transferable across languages.
- Formative assessment
- Ongoing, low-stakes assessment during learning (observations, exit tickets, portfolios) used to adjust instruction.
- Summative assessment
- Assessment at the end of a unit or year (a final test, the Summative ELPAC) measuring learning against standards.
- Assessment FOR learning
- Another name for formative assessment — it informs and changes ongoing teaching.
- Assessment OF learning
- Another name for summative assessment — it measures achievement after instruction.
- ELPAC
- English Language Proficiency Assessments for California — the state test of English proficiency for English learners.
- Initial ELPAC
- The first ELPAC, given to a potential English learner to determine EL status and starting proficiency level.
- Summative ELPAC
- The annual ELPAC that measures an English learner's yearly progress and informs reclassification.
- Alternate ELPAC
- The ELPAC form for English learners with the most significant cognitive disabilities.
- CELDT
- The California English Language Development Test — the older proficiency test that the ELPAC replaced.
- Home-language survey
- A required survey of languages used at home that flags students who may be English learners.
- Reclassification (RFEP)
- Redesignating an English learner as fluent English proficient once they meet state criteria (incl. ELPAC).
- RFEP
- Reclassified Fluent English Proficient — a former EL who has met reclassification criteria and is monitored.
- IFEP
- Initially Fluent English Proficient — a student identified as already proficient at initial assessment.
- Rubric
- A scoring tool listing criteria and performance levels so assessment is consistent, objective, and transparent.
- Analytic rubric
- A rubric that scores several traits separately (e.g., content, organization, language).
- Holistic rubric
- A rubric that gives a single overall score based on an integrated judgment of the work.
- Portfolio
- A collection of a learner's work over time, giving a comprehensive, growth-focused picture of development.
- Authentic assessment
- Assessment through real, meaningful tasks (a presentation, a written piece) rather than only test items.
- Performance-based assessment
- Assessment in which students demonstrate skills by doing a task, not just selecting answers.
- Self-assessment
- Students evaluating their own work or learning — builds metacognition and ownership.
- Peer assessment
- Students giving structured feedback on each other's work; promotes collaboration when trained.
- Metacognition
- Awareness and understanding of one's own thinking and learning processes.
- Diagnostic assessment
- Assessment before/early in instruction to identify strengths and needs and plan teaching.
- Standardized test
- A test administered and scored uniformly; can be culturally or linguistically biased against ELs.
- Norm-referenced test
- A test comparing a student's score to a norm group's performance.
- Criterion-referenced test
- A test measuring performance against fixed criteria or standards, not other students.
- Validity
- The degree to which an assessment measures what it claims to measure.
- Reliability
- The degree to which an assessment produces consistent, repeatable results.
- Cultural bias (in testing)
- When test content or language disadvantages students from particular cultural or linguistic backgrounds.
- Linguistic bias (in testing)
- When the language demand of a test obscures a learner's actual content knowledge.
- Accommodations
- Changes in how a test is given (extra time, glossary) that don't change what is measured.
- Language vs. content assessment
- Distinguishing whether a task measures English proficiency or knowledge of subject content.
- Running record
- A systematic record of a student's oral reading, used to assess reading behaviors.
- Observation (assessment)
- Watching and recording a learner's language use in authentic classroom contexts.
- Checklist
- A list of skills/behaviors marked present or absent to track development.
- Anecdotal record
- A brief written note describing a specific observed behavior or learning moment.
- Backward design
- Planning by first defining desired outcomes/assessments, then designing instruction to reach them.
- Authentic task
- A real-world, meaningful task that reflects how language is actually used.
- Proficiency assessment
- Assessment measuring how developed a learner's overall language ability is, independent of a curriculum.
- Achievement assessment
- Assessment measuring what a learner has learned from specific instruction or content.
- ELD
- English Language Development — instruction that targets English itself (listening, speaking, reading, writing) at the learner's level.
- SDAIE
- Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English — teaching grade-level content in English using sheltering strategies.
- Sheltered instruction
- Teaching content comprehensibly to English learners through visuals, scaffolds, modeling, and clear language objectives.
- SIOP
- Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol — a framework organizing sheltered teaching into observable components.
- Scaffolding
- Temporary, targeted support (sentence frames, models, organizers) that helps a learner do a task, then is removed.
- Total Physical Response
- A method where learners respond to spoken commands with physical actions, linking language to movement.
- TPR
- Total Physical Response — action-based instruction ideal for newcomers and the silent period.
- Content-based instruction
- Teaching subject content and language together, using real content as the context for developing English.
- CLIL
- Content and Language Integrated Learning — teaching a subject and a target language at the same time.
- Designated ELD
- A protected instructional time focused specifically on developing English, aligned to the ELD Standards.
- Integrated ELD
- English language development woven into content instruction by all teachers throughout the day.
- Language objective
- A stated goal for the language students will use or learn in a lesson, paired with a content objective.
- Content objective
- A stated goal for the subject-matter knowledge or skill students will learn in a lesson.
- Comprehensible input (strategy)
- Making instruction understandable through visuals, realia, modeling, slower speech, and clear context.
- Realia
- Real objects brought into the classroom to anchor meaning and make input comprehensible.
- Sentence frames
- Partial sentence structures students complete to produce academic language with support.
- Graphic organizer
- A visual that maps relationships among ideas, aiding comprehension and organizing writing.
- Visual aids
- Pictures, charts, and diagrams that make abstract language and content comprehensible.
- Cooperative learning
- Structured small-group work where students depend on and support one another's learning.
- Collaborative learning
- Students working together toward shared goals, providing low-anxiety language practice.
- Think-pair-share
- A structure where students think alone, discuss with a partner, then share with the class.
- Modeling
- Demonstrating a process or product so learners see exactly what is expected before doing it.
- Think-aloud
- Verbalizing one's thinking while reading or solving to make invisible strategies visible.
- Wait time
- Pausing after a question to give learners time to process and formulate a response.
- Tapping prior knowledge
- Activating what students already know to connect new learning and build background.
- Building background
- Connecting new content to students' experiences and pre-teaching key vocabulary.
- Language experience approach
- Students dictate a story from experience that the teacher records and uses as reading text.
- Differentiated instruction
- Adjusting content, process, or product to meet learners' varied proficiency levels and needs.
- Gradual release of responsibility
- 'I do, we do, you do' — shifting work from teacher to student as competence grows.
- Authentic materials
- Real texts and media (menus, articles, videos) used to make language learning meaningful.
- Student-centered instruction
- Teaching organized around learners' active participation, choice, and needs.
- Negotiation of meaning
- Interaction in which speakers clarify and confirm to reach mutual understanding — drives acquisition.
- Pull-out ELD
- ELD delivered by removing students from the regular class for separate language instruction.
- Push-in ELD
- ELD support provided inside the regular classroom alongside content instruction.
- Structured English Immersion (SEI)
- A program where nearly all instruction is in English with ELD support, for a temporary period.
- SEI
- Structured English Immersion — near-all-English, sheltered instruction for not-yet-fluent ELs.
- Transitional bilingual education
- Using the home language early to teach content, then shifting to English-only quickly (subtractive).
- Maintenance bilingual education
- Developing and keeping the L1 alongside English so students become biliterate (additive).
- Developmental bilingual education
- Another name for maintenance bilingual — long-term development of both languages.
- Dual-language immersion
- A two-way program where English learners and English speakers learn together in both languages.
- Two-way immersion
- Dual-language program mixing two language groups, with bilingualism/biliteracy as the goal for all.
- Newcomer program
- A specialized short-term program for recently arrived English learners.
- Heritage language
- A language tied to a learner's family or community background, valued as a resource.
- Primary language support
- Using a learner's first language strategically to support comprehension and learning.
- Total physical response storytelling
- TPRS — combining TPR with stories to teach vocabulary and grammar in context.
- Cloze activity
- A fill-in-the-blank text used to build and assess comprehension and vocabulary.
- Frontloading vocabulary
- Pre-teaching key terms before a lesson so input is comprehensible.
- Tiered questioning
- Asking questions matched to each learner's proficiency level to keep all students engaged.
- Backward design (curriculum)
- Designing a unit from desired results and assessments back to daily instruction.
- Curriculum compacting
- Streamlining content so learners spend time where they most need it.
- Affective factors
- Emotional influences on learning — motivation, anxiety, self-confidence, attitude — that affect acquisition.
- Integrative motivation
- Wanting to learn a language to connect with and belong to its community.
- Instrumental motivation
- Wanting to learn a language for a practical purpose (a job, a grade).
- Krashen's monitor model
- The overarching name for Krashen's five-hypothesis theory of second-language acquisition.
- Underlying proficiency model
- Cummins's view that L1 and L2 draw on one shared cognitive base (common underlying proficiency).
- Separate underlying proficiency
- The disproven idea that languages are stored separately and compete for limited cognitive space.
- BICS development time
- Conversational fluency typically develops in about 1–3 years.
- CALP development time
- Academic language proficiency typically takes about 5–7 years or more.
- Translanguaging
- Bilinguals flexibly drawing on their full linguistic repertoire across both languages to make meaning.
- Syntax
- The rules governing how words combine into phrases and sentences.
- Semantics
- The study of word and sentence meaning.
- Phonology
- The sound system of a language and the rules for combining sounds.
- Fluency (reading)
- Reading with accuracy, appropriate rate, and expression so attention is free for meaning.
- Comprehensible input vs. output
- Input is understandable language received; output is language a learner produces (Swain).
- Vocabulary breadth vs. depth
- Breadth = how many words a learner knows; depth = how well they know each word.
- Academic vocabulary tiers
- Tier 1 everyday words, Tier 2 high-use academic words, Tier 3 domain-specific terms.
- L1 literacy as a resource
- Strong first-language literacy accelerates English literacy through transfer.
- Receptive before productive
- Learners typically understand language before they can produce it.
- Error vs. mistake
- An error reflects a gap in knowledge; a mistake is a slip the learner can self-correct.
- Stages: intermediate fluency
- Learners use more complex sentences and express opinions with fewer errors.
- Stages: advanced fluency
- Learners approach native-like proficiency in social and academic contexts.
- Schema theory
- Prior knowledge structures (schemas) shape how readers comprehend new text.
- Background knowledge
- What a learner already knows; activating it improves comprehension of new content.
- Purpose of formative assessment
- To give ongoing feedback that lets a teacher adjust instruction to learner needs.
- Purpose of summative assessment
- To measure overall learning outcomes against standards at the end of instruction.
- ELPAC domains
- Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing — the four skills the ELPAC assesses.
- Reclassification criteria
- Typically ELPAC performance, basic-skills evidence, teacher input, and parent consultation.
- Initial vs. Summative ELPAC
- Initial identifies and places a new EL; Summative measures yearly progress toward reclassification.
- Equitable assessment
- Assessment designed so language barriers don't mask an EL's true content knowledge.
- Multiple measures
- Using several assessments together for a fuller, fairer picture than one test gives.
- Rubric criteria
- The specific traits a rubric evaluates (e.g., focus, organization, language conventions).
- Performance level descriptors
- Statements describing what work looks like at each rubric or proficiency level.
- Exit ticket
- A quick end-of-lesson check of understanding — a common formative tool.
- Conferencing
- One-on-one teacher–student discussion to assess and guide learning.
- Pre-assessment
- Assessment before instruction to find out what learners already know.
- Standards-based assessment
- Assessment tied directly to content and ELD standards.
- Authentic vs. standardized
- Authentic uses real tasks; standardized uses uniform items and scoring — each has trade-offs.
- Test accommodations for ELs
- Permitted supports (extra time, bilingual glossary) that keep what's measured the same.
- Interpreting EL scores
- Distinguish whether a low score reflects content knowledge or English proficiency.
- Portfolio assessment benefit
- Shows growth over time and a range of authentic work a single test cannot capture.
- Self-assessment benefit
- Develops metacognition and student ownership of learning.
- Peer assessment benefit
- Builds collaboration and gives learners more feedback when properly structured.
- Rubric benefit
- Makes scoring consistent, objective, transparent, and shared with learners in advance.
- ELD vs. SDAIE goal
- ELD's goal is English proficiency; SDAIE's goal is grade-level content taught comprehensibly.
- SIOP components
- Lesson prep, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice, review/assessment.
- Comprehensible input techniques
- Visuals, realia, gestures, slower speech, modeling, and clear context to make meaning accessible.
- Scaffolding examples
- Sentence frames, graphic organizers, word banks, modeling, and partially completed work.
- Fading scaffolds
- Gradually removing support as learners gain independence (gradual release).
- Designated vs. integrated ELD
- Designated = protected language time; integrated = ELD within content instruction all day.
- Productive group work
- Structured cooperative tasks that give ELs low-anxiety, meaningful language practice.
- Realia in instruction
- Real objects used to anchor vocabulary and concepts for beginners.
- Graphic organizer use
- Maps relationships among ideas to support comprehension and organize writing.
- Sentence frame use
- Provides a structure so learners can produce academic language at their level.
- Total Physical Response use
- Best for newcomers/silent period — show comprehension through action before speaking.
- Content-based instruction benefit
- Develops academic English through meaningful engagement with real grade-level content.
- Language + content objectives
- Effective sheltered lessons state both a content goal and a language goal.
- Primary-language support use
- Strategic L1 use to clarify, preview, or check understanding.
- Newcomer program purpose
- Short-term, intensive support for recently arrived English learners.
- Dual-language goals
- Bilingualism, biliteracy, academic achievement, and cross-cultural competence for all students.
- Two-way vs. one-way immersion
- Two-way mixes two language groups; one-way serves a single language group.
- Transitional bilingual model
- Uses L1 as a temporary bridge to English-only — a subtractive design.
- Maintenance bilingual model
- Sustains and grows the L1 alongside English — an additive design.
- SEI placement
- Structured English Immersion serves ELs not yet reasonably fluent in English.
- Sheltered content classes
- Grade-level subject classes taught with SDAIE strategies for English learners.
- Wait time benefit
- Gives ELs time to process language and content before responding.
- Building background benefit
- Connects new learning to students' experiences and pre-teaches key vocabulary.
- Negotiation of meaning benefit
- Interaction that clarifies meaning provides the comprehensible input that drives acquisition.
- Authentic materials benefit
- Real-world texts make language learning meaningful and contextually rich.
- Differentiation for ELs
- Adjusting content, process, or product to each learner's proficiency level.
- Student-centered benefit
- Active participation and choice increase engagement and language use.
