Your FREE CSET Flashcards 2026 – 350+ Cards

CSET Flashcards

Photosynthesis

The process by which producers convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into chemical energy (sugar) and oxygen.

Phonemic awareness

The purely oral ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words — including rhyming, segmenting, and blending. It involves no print.

Phonics

Instruction in the relationship between sounds and the written letters that represent them — the sound–symbol connection. Distinct from phonemic awareness, which is sound only.

What is the difference between phonemic awareness and phonics?

Phonemic awareness is purely oral — manipulating spoken sounds with no print. Phonics is the sound–symbol relationship between spoken sounds and written letters.

Alphabetic principle

The understanding that there are systematic, predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds in English.

What are the four core components of language?

Phonology (sound system), morphology (structure of words/morphemes), syntax (sentence structure), and semantics (meaning). Pragmatics is using language in social context.

Phonology

The sound system of a language — the phonemes and the rules for how sounds may be combined.

Morphology

The study of the structure of words and of morphemes — the smallest units of meaning (e.g., prefixes, roots, suffixes).

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language, such as a prefix, root, or suffix.

Syntax

The rules governing how words combine into phrases, clauses, and sentences, letting a writer build simple, compound, and complex sentences.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics dealing with meaning — including denotative (literal) and connotative (associative) word meanings.

Pragmatics

Using language appropriately in social context to communicate — adjusting language to audience, purpose, and situation.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language. Phonemes vary by placement and manner of articulation (consonant vs. vowel groupings).

Segmenting (phonemic awareness)

Breaking a spoken word into its individual phonemes (e.g., 'cat' → /k/ /a/ /t/). A purely oral skill.

Blending (phonemic awareness)

Combining individual phonemes orally to form a spoken word (e.g., /k/ /a/ /t/ → 'cat'). A purely oral skill.

What is the difference between a phoneme and phonics?

A phoneme is a unit of spoken sound (sound only). Phonics is the relationship between sounds and the letters that represent them.

Clause

A group of words containing a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand alone; a dependent (subordinate) clause cannot.

Independent vs. dependent clause

An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone; a dependent (subordinate) clause has a subject and verb but cannot stand alone.

Phrase vs. clause

A clause contains a subject and a verb; a phrase does not. Both are syntactic components used to build varied sentence types.

Simple, compound, and complex sentences

Simple = one independent clause; compound = two or more independent clauses joined; complex = an independent clause plus at least one dependent clause.

Reading fluency

The ability to read with accuracy, appropriate rate, and prosody (expression and phrasing). Fluency frees attention for comprehension.

What are the three indicators of reading fluency?

Accuracy, rate, and prosody (expression/phrasing).

Prosody

The expression, phrasing, and intonation of reading — one of the three indicators of reading fluency, along with accuracy and rate.

Denotative meaning

The literal, dictionary definition of a word, as opposed to its connotative (associative) meaning.

Connotative meaning

The associative or emotional meaning a word carries beyond its literal, denotative definition.

What is the developmental continuum of literacy?

The progressive development of phonemic awareness → decoding → word recognition → spelling → comprehension across English-language acquisition.

Decoding

Applying sound–symbol knowledge to read (sound out) written words. It interrelates with fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

Etymology

The origin and historical development of a word; one factor (with phonology, the alphabetic principle, and morphology) that makes English spelling complex.

Interlanguage

A normal developmental stage of second-language learners; its features should be distinguished from exceptional (atypical) language development, not mistaken for a disability.

First-language development vs. second-language acquisition

First-language development is the natural growth of a child's native language; second-language acquisition is learning a subsequent language, which interacts with the first (e.g., interlanguage transfer).

What are the three main genres of writing applications?

Arguments (claims plus valid reasoning and sufficient evidence), informative/explanatory texts, and narratives (real or imagined experiences with well-structured event sequences).

Argument (writing genre)

Writing that supports claims with valid reasoning and relevant, sufficient evidence.

Narrative (writing genre)

Writing that recounts real or imagined experiences using descriptive detail and well-structured event sequences.

Standard English conventions

The accepted rules of spoken and written English: sentence structure, preferred usage, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation.

Prewriting strategies

Planning techniques used before drafting — outlining, graphic organizers, and note-taking.

What does it mean to paraphrase without plagiarizing?

Restating a source's idea in your own words while accurately citing the source using accepted conventions.

Literary devices (examples)

Techniques such as rhyme, metaphor, simile, alliteration, personification, imagery, and symbolism used to create meaning and effect in prose and poetry.

Theme (literature)

The central idea or underlying message of a literary work, sometimes drawn from cultural patterns and symbols in rituals, mythologies, and traditions.

What two methods are used to evaluate text complexity?

Quantitative tools/measures and qualitative dimensions (levels of meaning, structure, language conventionality/clarity, and background-knowledge demands).

Articles of Confederation

The first national government of the United States. Its weakness — no power to tax or regulate trade — led to the Constitutional Convention and the U.S. Constitution.

What weakness of the Articles of Confederation led to the Constitution?

The Articles created a weak central government that lacked the power to tax or regulate commerce, prompting the Constitutional Convention and the U.S. Constitution plus the Bill of Rights.

What are the three branches of the U.S. government?

The executive (carries out laws), legislative (makes laws), and judicial (interprets laws).

Separation of powers

The principle of dividing government into three branches — executive, legislative, and judicial — so no single branch holds all power.

Federalism

The division of power between the national (federal) government and the state governments.

Checks and balances

The system by which each branch of government can limit the powers of the others, preventing any one branch from dominating.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which protect individual liberties.

Declaration of Independence (key ideas)

It asserts natural rights, consent of the governed, and popular sovereignty — Enlightenment ideas rooted in John Locke.

Scarcity

The basic economic problem that resources are limited while wants are unlimited, forcing individuals and societies to make choices.

Opportunity cost

The value of the next-best alternative given up when a choice is made. It arises from scarcity, which forces trade-offs.

A student studies instead of working a paid shift — what economic concept are the lost wages?

Opportunity cost — the value of the next-best alternative (the wages) given up by choosing to study.

Supply and demand

The market forces that set price: supply is how much producers offer at each price; demand is how much buyers want. Price moves toward equilibrium where they balance.

Equilibrium price

The price at which the quantity producers supply equals the quantity buyers demand.

Fiscal policy vs. monetary policy

Fiscal policy is government taxing and spending; monetary policy is a central bank controlling the money supply.

Circular-flow model

An economic model showing the exchange of money, goods, and resources between households and businesses.

Name the eight ancient civilizations on the CSET SMR list.

Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Kush, Hebrew, Greek, Indian, Chinese, and Roman.

How did river-valley geography drive early civilizations?

Reliable water and arable soil (e.g., the Tigris–Euphrates, Nile, Indus, and Huang He valleys) enabled surplus agriculture, leading to cities, specialization, and writing.

Fertile Crescent

The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia where early civilization arose due to fertile, well-watered soil.

Contribution of ancient Greece

Democracy (in Athens), philosophy, and drama.

Contribution of ancient Rome

The republic, Roman law, and engineering such as roads and aqueducts.

Silk Road

The trade network linking China to the Mediterranean; it spread goods, religions, and technology through cultural diffusion.

Feudalism

A hierarchical, land-for-service social and economic system that arose after the fall of Rome — notably in both Europe and Japan.

Renaissance

The rebirth of classical learning and art in Europe that, with the Scientific Revolution, helped launch early modern capitalism and representative democracy.

Magna Carta (1215)

The English charter that limited royal power and began the evolution of representative democracy, a thread running through the Enlightenment.

Why was France important to the American War for Independence?

France was the decisive ally whose support helped the American colonies win independence from Britain.

Major causes of the Civil War

Economic, social, and political differences over slavery, including constitutional debates over nullification and secession.

Union vs. Confederacy strengths

The Union had greater population, industry, and a stronger navy; the Confederacy had strong military leadership and fought a defensive war on home soil.

Reconstruction

The post–Civil War effort to rebuild the South and integrate freed people; its abandonment led to the rise of Jim Crow segregation.

Jim Crow

The system of laws and practices that enforced racial segregation in the South after the abandonment of Reconstruction.

Nativism

The 19th-century backlash favoring native-born citizens against successive waves of immigrants.

California mission system

The Spanish-era system of religious missions that influenced early California's agricultural economy.

California Gold Rush (1848–49)

A migration triggered by gold discovery with major cultural, social, political, and economic effects — including significant impacts on American Indians and Mexican nationals.

Initiative, referendum, and recall

California's Progressive-era reforms that let voters directly propose laws (initiative), approve/reject laws (referendum), and remove officials (recall).

Why does California have a major water-delivery system?

Because of the state's geography, water is transferred from the wetter north to the drier south; large-scale agriculture depends on this delivery.

Latitude and longitude

Latitude lines run east–west measuring distance north/south of the equator; longitude lines run north–south measuring distance east/west of the prime meridian.

Prime meridian

The 0° longitude line from which east–west distances and time zones are measured.

Forms of government (CSET list)

Monarchy, totalitarianism, republicanism, democracy, and limited government.

Primary vs. secondary source

A primary source is a firsthand record (document, artifact, photograph); a secondary source interprets or analyzes primary sources after the fact.

Physical change

A change in a substance's form or state (e.g., ice melting, water evaporating) in which no new substance is formed and the chemical identity stays the same.

Chemical change

A change that rearranges atoms to form one or more new substances with new properties — such as rusting, burning, or digestion.

What is the difference between a physical and a chemical change?

In a physical change the substance keeps its chemical identity (only form/state changes); in a chemical change atoms rearrange to form new substances with new properties.

Is ice melting and evaporating a physical or chemical change?

A physical change — the substance stays H2O throughout; only its state and energy change, not its chemical identity.

States of matter

The common physical forms of matter — solid, liquid, and gas — distinguished by properties such as shape and volume.

Conservation of matter and energy

Matter and energy are conserved — they are not created or destroyed, though they may change form.

Atomic structure

Atoms consist of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons orbiting around it.

Periodic table

A chart that organizes the elements by their atomic characteristics and chemical properties.

pH of solutions

Solutions can be acidic, basic, or neutral; pH measures this (e.g., soft drinks are acidic, water is near neutral).

Producer

An organism (such as a green plant) that makes its own food from sunlight through photosynthesis, forming the base of a food chain.

Food chain

A model of energy transfer through an ecosystem: producers → consumers → decomposers. Energy originates with the sun; matter cycles through.

In a food chain grass → grasshopper → frog → hawk, what is the grass and where does the energy start?

The grass is the primary producer; the energy originates from sunlight, which producers capture through photosynthesis.

Producers, consumers, decomposers

Producers make their own food; consumers eat other organisms; decomposers break down dead matter, recycling it back into the ecosystem.

Carrying capacity

The number and types of organisms an ecosystem can support given its resources.

What are the levels of organization in a living organism?

Organ systems → organs → tissues → cells → subcellular organelles (e.g., nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondrion).

Mitosis

The process of cell division that produces new cells, enabling growth and replication in plants and animals.

Sexual vs. asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction combines genetic material from two parents (offspring vary); asexual reproduction produces offspring from one parent (genetically similar).

Evidence for evolution

The fossil record, comparative anatomy, and DNA sequences support gradual evolution over billions of years.

Darwin's theory of natural selection

Species evolve over time by natural selection, in which organisms better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Scientific method

The systematic process of inquiry: ask a question, form a hypothesis, test it with a controlled experiment, analyze data, and draw a conclusion.

Hypothesis

A testable, proposed explanation or prediction that an experiment is designed to support or refute.

Independent vs. dependent variable

The independent variable is the factor the experimenter changes; the dependent variable is the response that is measured.

Difference between a scientific theory and a law

A theory is a well-supported explanation of why or how something happens; a law describes a consistent observed relationship, often mathematically.

Forces

Pushes or pulls (such as gravity, magnetism, and friction) that change an object's motion only when they are unbalanced.

Forms of energy

Examples include solar, wind, chemical, electrical, magnetic, nuclear, sound, light, and electromagnetic energy.

Heat vs. temperature

Heat is thermal energy transferred between objects; temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles.

Heat transfer methods

Conduction (through direct contact), convection (through moving fluids), and radiation (through electromagnetic waves).

Simple machines

Devices (such as levers and pulleys) that let a small force applied over a long distance accomplish difficult tasks.

Rock cycle / three rock types

Rocks form and transform among three types: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.

Earth's layers

From outside in: crust, lithosphere, mantle, and core.

Plate tectonics

The movement of Earth's plates, driven by convection, that forms mountains and causes volcanoes and earthquakes.

The water cycle

The continuous movement of water — evaporation, condensation, and precipitation — driven by solar energy and gravity.

What causes tides?

The gravitational attraction of the moon and sun, modified by coastal topography.

What explains the solar system's motion and time zones?

Planets follow predictable patterns of motion around the sun; Earth's rotation, combined with longitude, produces time zones and the apparent daily motion of the sun and stars.

Metric system

The base-ten system of measurement (e.g., meters, grams, liters) used in science to record length, mass, and volume.

Engineering design process

Defining a problem and its constraints, generating and comparing multiple solutions, and optimizing the design solution.

Weathering vs. erosion

Weathering breaks rock down in place (chemically or physically); erosion is the transport of weathered material by wind, water, or ice.

Proportional reasoning

Comparing equivalent ratios to solve problems — e.g., 3/2 = 9/x gives x = 6. Used with ratios, equivalent fractions, and similar figures.

A recipe uses 3 cups flour to 2 cups sugar; for 9 cups flour, how much sugar?

6 cups, solved with proportional reasoning: 3/2 = 9/x, so x = 6 (flour tripled, so sugar triples).

Pythagorean theorem

For a right triangle, $a^{2} + b^{2} = c^{2}$, where c is the hypotenuse (opposite the right angle). Legs of 6 and 8 give a hypotenuse of 10.

A right triangle has legs 6 and 8 — what is the hypotenuse?

10, because $6^{2} + 8^{2} = 36 + 64 = 100$ and $\sqrt{100} = 10$.

Converse of the Pythagorean theorem

If $a^{2} + b^{2} = c^{2}$ holds for a triangle's three sides, then the triangle is a right triangle.

Place value

The value of a digit based on its position in a number (ones, tens, hundreds). The foundation of the base-ten number system.

Order of operations

The agreed sequence for evaluating expressions: parentheses, exponents, multiplication/division (left to right), then addition/subtraction.

What does PEMDAS stand for?

Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division (left to right), Addition and Subtraction (left to right).

Real number system

The set of all rational and irrational numbers, including whole numbers, integers, fractions, decimals, and irrationals like $\sqrt{2}$.

Rational vs. irrational number

A rational number can be written as a fraction of two integers; an irrational number (e.g., $\pi$, $\sqrt{2}$) cannot and has a non-repeating, non-terminating decimal.

Scientific notation

A way to write very large or very small numbers as a coefficient times a power of ten (e.g., $4.5 \times 10^{3}$).

Greatest common factor (GCF)

The largest whole number that divides evenly into two or more numbers.

Prime number

A whole number greater than 1 whose only factors are 1 and itself.

Equivalent fractions

Fractions that name the same value (e.g., 1/2 = 2/4), formed by multiplying or dividing numerator and denominator by the same nonzero number.

How do you add fractions with unlike denominators?

Find a common denominator, rewrite each fraction with it, then add the numerators and keep the common denominator.

Slope

The steepness of a line, the ratio of vertical change (rise) to horizontal change (run) between two points.

Dependent vs. independent variable (algebra)

The independent variable is the input that is chosen freely; the dependent variable is the output that depends on it.

Distributive property

Multiplying a sum is the same as multiplying each addend and adding, e.g., 2(a + 3) = 2a + 6.

Two ways to solve a quadratic equation

Factoring and completing the square (graphing also reveals solutions).

Congruent vs. similar figures

Congruent figures have the same shape and size; similar figures have the same shape but proportional (scaled) sizes.

Geometric transformations

Translations (slides), rotations (turns), and reflections (flips), which can also reveal symmetry.

Perimeter vs. area

Perimeter is the distance around a 2-D figure; area is the amount of surface it covers (in square units).

Area of a triangle

One-half the base times the height: $A = \frac{1}{2} \times b \times h$.

Surface area vs. volume

Surface area is the total area of a 3-D figure's faces (square units); volume is the space it contains (cubic units).

Mean

The arithmetic average of a data set: the sum of the values divided by the number of values.

Median

The middle value of an ordered data set (the average of the two middle values if the count is even).

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Range (statistics)

The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a data set (max − min).

What is the difference between mean, median, and mode?

Mean is the sum divided by the count; median is the middle ordered value; mode is the most frequent value.

Random sample

A sample chosen so every member of the population has an equal chance of selection, used to draw valid conclusions about the population.

Probability of an event

The number of favorable outcomes divided by the total number of equally likely outcomes ($P = \text{favorable} \div \text{total}$).

Complementary events

The probability that an event does not happen: P(not A) = 1 − P(A).

Independent events

Events whose outcomes do not affect each other; the probability of both occurring is $P(A \text{ and } B) = P(A) \times P(B)$.

Mutually exclusive events

Events that cannot happen at the same time; the probability of either is P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).

Scatter plot

A graph of paired (bivariate) data used to identify patterns of association, such as a linear relationship and goodness of fit.

Rounding and estimation

Approximating a number to a given place value or finding an approximate answer to check the reasonableness of a calculation.

Measures of center vs. spread

Center (mean, median, mode) describes a typical value; spread (range) describes how much the data vary.

Equilateral, isosceles, and scalene triangles

Equilateral has three equal sides; isosceles has two equal sides; scalene has no equal sides.

FIT principles

Frequency, Intensity, and Time — the adjustable exercise variables a teacher manipulates to build fitness components such as cardiorespiratory endurance.

What does the FIT principle stand for, and what is added in FITT?

Frequency (how often), Intensity (how hard), and Time (how long); FITT adds Type of activity.

What are the five physical fitness components?

Flexibility, muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiorespiratory endurance, and body composition.

Cardiorespiratory endurance

The ability of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to deliver oxygen during sustained physical activity; one of the five fitness components.

Muscular strength vs. muscular endurance

Muscular strength is the maximum force a muscle can exert; muscular endurance is the ability to sustain repeated or prolonged muscle contractions.

Flexibility

The range of motion available at a joint; one of the five physical fitness components.

Body composition

The proportion of fat and lean (muscle, bone) tissue in the body; one of the five physical fitness components.

Locomotor skills

Fundamental movement skills that move the body through space — running, jumping, hopping, skipping, galloping, leaping, sliding.

Nonlocomotor skills

Movement skills performed around the body's axis without traveling — bending, stretching, twisting, turning, swaying, balancing.

Manipulative skills

Fundamental movement skills involving handling an object — throwing, catching, kicking, striking, dribbling.

What are the three categories of fundamental movement skills?

Locomotor (moving through space), nonlocomotor (movement around the body's axis), and manipulative/object-manipulation (handling an object).

Is throwing a locomotor, nonlocomotor, or manipulative skill?

A manipulative (object-manipulation) skill, because it involves controlling an object.

Critical element of throwing

Stepping in opposition — striding forward with the foot opposite the throwing arm to add force and accuracy.

Critical element of kicking

Following through with the kicking leg after contact to add force and control.

Movement concepts (PE)

Body awareness, space awareness, and movement exploration — the foundational concepts of how the body moves.

How do gravity and friction affect movement?

Biomechanical factors such as gravity, friction, and the laws of motion influence how the body moves during physical activity.

Kinesthetic awareness

The body's internal sense of its own movement and position in space.

Inclusion mandate in PE

Selecting activities that can include all students regardless of gender, race, culture, religion, abilities, or disabilities.

Cross-curricular integration in PE

Connecting physical-education activities with other content areas such as math and science.

How does goal setting support physical activity?

Goal setting is a psychological skill that increases motivation and adherence, promoting lifelong participation in physical activity.

How does physical activity relate to self-image?

Regular physical activity helps develop a positive self-image and supports general well-being.

Cooperation before competition

Developmentally, cooperative activities are appropriate before competitive ones; young children benefit from cooperation first.

Attachment

The strong, enduring emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver. It is foundational to healthy social and personality development.

What term describes the emotional bond between an infant and caregiver?

Attachment — a concept the CSET lists under the development of personality and temperament.

Cognitive development

The growth of thinking, reasoning, and language across identifiable stages from infancy through adolescence — used to explain why same-age children differ.

Cognitive vs. moral development

Cognitive development is how thinking, reasoning, and problem solving change with age; moral development is how reasoning about right and wrong matures.

Why use stages of cognitive development to interpret two same-age children who reason differently?

To understand individual differences — applying developmental concepts and stages (e.g., concrete to abstract reasoning) rather than treating the differences as random.

Self-concept

A child's developing sense of who they are; one of the concepts related to personality and temperament.

Autonomy

The growing capacity for independent, self-directed action; a concept related to personality and temperament.

Identity (development)

The central developmental task of adolescence — forming a coherent sense of self.

Temperament

Individual, biologically based differences in behavioral and emotional style, distinct from learned personality.

What are the four named personality/temperament concepts in the CSET SMR?

Attachment, self-concept, autonomy, and identity.

Prosocial behavior

Helping, sharing, and cooperating behavior; the CSET expects candidates to describe influences that promote it.

Multiple intelligences

The view that intelligence consists of several distinct capacities rather than a single ability, implying individual differences in cognitive strengths.

How does play influence development?

Play (e.g., symbolic/pretend and cooperative/group play) advances both cognitive development (reasoning, symbol use) and social development.

Physical development sequence

Physical development follows a predictable scope and sequence across infancy, childhood, and adolescence, with individual differences including for students with special needs.

How do growth spurts affect coordination?

Rapid changes in height and weight, and body type, can temporarily reduce movement coordination.

What factors influence development (CSET list)?

Genetic/organic causes, sociocultural factors (family, race, culture), socioeconomic factors (poverty, class), and sex and gender.

Sociocultural vs. socioeconomic factors

Sociocultural factors include family, race, and cultural perspective; socioeconomic factors include poverty and social class.

Forms of abuse and neglect (CSET list)

Physical, emotional, and substance abuse and neglect; candidates must describe their impact on development.

How are developmental concepts used on the constructed-response item?

Candidates are given a scenario or anecdote and must explain a child's behavior using developmental concepts and principles.

Language development (Human Development)

Identifying the sequence of language acquisition from birth through adolescence and using it to describe an individual's development.

Fine vs. gross motor skills

Fine motor skills use small muscles (e.g., grasping, writing); gross motor skills use large muscles (e.g., walking, jumping). Both develop in a predictable sequence.

What influences on health and well-being does the CSET name?

Exercise, relaxation, nutrition, stress, and substance abuse all affect physical health and general well-being.

Elements of music

The building blocks of music — including pitch (highness/lowness), rhythm (patterns of duration), and harmony (pitches sounded together).

Pitch, rhythm, and harmony are examples of what?

Elements of music — the basic building blocks used when creating, performing, and responding to music.

Pitch

The highness or lowness of a musical sound; an element of music.

Rhythm

The pattern of duration and timing of sounds in music; an element of music.

Harmony

Two or more pitches sounded together (chords); an element of music.

Melody vs. harmony

Melody is a single line of successive pitches; harmony is pitches sounded simultaneously (chords).

Tempo

The speed of the beat in music — how fast or slow a piece is performed.

Dynamics (music)

The loudness or softness of music.

Elements of art

The visual building blocks artists use — line, color, shape, form, value, texture, and space.

Line, color, and balance belong to which body of knowledge?

The formal and conceptual vocabularies of art and design (color and line are elements of art; balance and composition are principles of design).

Principles of design

How elements are arranged in a work — balance, contrast, emphasis, movement, pattern, rhythm, proportion, and unity/variety.

Composition (visual art)

The arrangement of the elements of art within a work.

Balance (art)

A principle of design describing the distribution of visual weight in a work so it feels stable.

Line (art)

An element of art — a mark with length and direction used to define shapes, contours, and movement.

Color (art)

An element of art produced by reflected light, described by hue, value, and intensity.

What are California's four arts disciplines (for the multiple-subject teacher)?

Dance, music, theatre, and visual art.

What are the four artistic processes in the California Arts Standards?

Creating, Performing/Presenting/Producing, Responding, and Connecting.

Elements of dance (BASTE)

Body, Action, Space, Time, and Energy — the building blocks of dance.

Dance phrase

The basic dance 'sentence' — a sequence of movement with a beginning, middle, and clear end.

Choreography

The deliberate arranging of movement into dance; improvisation, by contrast, is spontaneous, unplanned movement.

Given circumstances (theatre)

The who, what, where, when, and why surrounding a character in a dramatic work.

How do actors convey character in theatre?

Primarily through voice and gesture/movement, supported by technical theatre and design elements.

Technical theatre / design elements

Scenery (set), lighting, sound, costumes, makeup, and props that support staging and performance.

Responding (artistic process)

Perceiving and analyzing art, interpreting intent and meaning, and applying criteria to evaluate works — the basis of aesthetic valuing.

Connecting (artistic process)

Relating artistic work to its societal, cultural, and historical context and to personal experience.

Phonological awareness

The broad umbrella skill of hearing and working with any sound unit in speech — rhyme, syllables, onset-rime, and individual phonemes. Phonemic awareness is its narrowest band (phonemes only).

How do phonological and phonemic awareness differ?

Phonological awareness is the umbrella covering all sound units (rhyme, syllables, onset-rime, phonemes); phonemic awareness is the narrowest band, dealing with individual phonemes only. Both are oral.

Onset-rime

Dividing a syllable into its onset (the initial consonant sound) and rime (the vowel and what follows). In 'cat,' the onset is /k/ and the rime is /at/ — a larger unit than a single phoneme.

Free vs. bound morpheme

A free morpheme stands alone as a word (cat, run); a bound morpheme cannot stand alone and attaches to others (the prefix un-, the suffix -ed). 'Cats' = cat (free) + -s (bound).

Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation

The named early-literacy assessment that measures a child's ability to break spoken words into their individual phonemes — a key tool for assessing phonemic awareness.

Mnemonic for the five language systems

'Please May Susan See Pancakes' — Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics. The exam often asks which system a classroom scenario illustrates.

A stem describes only spoken sounds, no letters. PA or phonics?

Phonemic awareness. If no letters or print are involved, it is phonemic awareness (oral only); the moment letters or spelling appear, it becomes phonics.

Order phonemic-awareness skills easiest to hardest

Rhyme/isolation first, then blending, then segmenting, then deletion/manipulation (e.g., say 'cat' without /k/). Deletion is the most advanced.

Simile vs. metaphor

A simile compares using 'like' or 'as' (brave as a lion). A metaphor states the comparison directly with no 'like' or 'as' (he is a lion). This pair appears on both MC and the CRQ.

Personification

A literary device giving human traits to nonhuman things, as in 'the wind whispered through the trees.'

Onomatopoeia

A word that imitates the sound it names, such as buzz, hiss, or clang.

Hyperbole

Deliberate, obvious exaggeration for effect, as in 'I've told you a million times.' Not meant to be taken literally.

Tone vs. mood

Tone is the author's attitude toward the subject, conveyed through word choice (diction). Mood is the feeling or atmosphere the text creates in the reader.

Third-person omniscient point of view

A narrative vantage in which the narrator stands outside the story and knows the thoughts and feelings of all characters — distinct from first person, which uses 'I.'

Revising vs. editing in the writing process

Revising is big-picture: improving content, organization, transitions, and word choice. Editing is surface-level: fixing grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation.

Name the five stages of the writing process.

Prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. It is recursive — writers move back and forth among stages, not in one pass.

What is the 'reader and task' lens of text complexity?

The third lens (with quantitative and qualitative): a teacher matches a text to a specific reader's background, motivation, and skill, and to the purpose of the assignment. Motivation cues point here.

Quantitative vs. qualitative text complexity

Quantitative measures are computer-scored (word length, sentence length, Lexile/readability formulas). Qualitative dimensions require human judgment (levels of meaning, structure, language clarity, knowledge demands).

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

The treaty that ended the U.S.-Mexican War, ceding California and other southwestern territory to the United States — the step just before the Gold Rush and statehood.

Order the California history chain: Missions → ? → ? → ? → Statehood

Missions → Mexican rule → U.S.-Mexican War (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1848) → Gold Rush (1848-49) → California statehood (1850).

When did California achieve statehood?

1850 — the final step in the chain of missions, Mexican rule, the U.S.-Mexican War, and the Gold Rush.

What were the three motives for colonizing the Americas?

Religious (e.g., New England settlers seeking religious freedom), economic (Southern cash crops and opportunity), and political. African slavery developed across the hemisphere with lasting consequences.

John Locke

The Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas on natural rights and consent of the governed directly shaped the Declaration of Independence.

Natural rights

Inherent rights such as life, liberty, and property that belong to all people by nature rather than being granted by government — a core idea behind the Declaration of Independence.

Popular sovereignty

The principle that governmental authority comes from the consent and will of the people; a foundational idea in the Declaration of Independence.

Limited government

The constitutional principle that government power is restricted by law, so officials may do only what the law permits — protecting individual liberty.

Power vs. authority (civics)

Power is the ability to act or make others act; authority is the legitimate, lawful right to exercise that power.

Republicanism (form of government)

A form of government in which citizens elect representatives to govern on their behalf, rather than ruling directly or being ruled by a single hereditary leader.

Name two responsibilities of U.S. citizenship.

Obeying laws, serving on juries, paying taxes, and staying informed are responsibilities; rights include voting, free speech, and due process.

Why did the Western Roman Empire decline?

A favorite exam item: political instability, reliance on mercenaries, and overexpansion together weakened and brought down the Western Roman Empire.

Scientific Revolution

The period in which observation and experiment replaced inherited authority, producing modern science; it followed the Renaissance and helped launch early modern Europe.

Cultural diffusion

The spread of ideas, goods, technologies, and beliefs from one culture or region to another — exemplified by the Silk Road linking China to the Mediterranean.

What ancient contribution do the Hebrews represent on the CSET list?

Monotheism and Judaism — the Hebrews of the eastern Mediterranean (Canaan) are tested for introducing belief in one God.

Signature contributions of ancient Egypt and China

Egypt: hieroglyphics, pyramids, and geometry (Nile silt farming). China: paper, silk, and Confucianism (Huang He / Yellow River valley).

What are the five themes of geography?

Location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, and region — the framework for analyzing geography, with human-environment interaction and cultural diffusion emphasized.

What did feudalism in Europe and Japan have in common?

In both, land was exchanged for military service within a strict social hierarchy of lords and vassals — a frequently tested parallel after the fall of Rome.

Density formula (and floating rule)

$\text{Density} = \text{mass} \div \text{volume}$. An object floats if it is less dense than the fluid and sinks if it is denser. Example: a 48 g block of 6 cm$^{3}$ has density 8 g/cm$^{3}$, so it sinks in water (density 1 g/cm$^{3}$).

Newton's second law (F = ma)

The net force on an object equals its mass times its acceleration ($F = m \times a$). To find acceleration, rearrange to $a = F \div m$ — a 10 N net force on a 2 kg cart gives 5 m/s$^{2}$.

Velocity vs. acceleration

Velocity is speed in a specific direction; acceleration is any change in velocity — speeding up, slowing down, OR turning. An object moving at constant speed around a curve is still accelerating because its direction changes.

How does an accelerating object graph on a distance-time graph?

As an upward-bending (concave-up) curve, NOT a straight line. A straight diagonal distance-vs-time line means constant speed; the curve is the classic released-item trap.

Lamarckism (the evolution CR trap)

The disproven idea that traits acquired during an organism's lifetime (a giraffe stretching its neck) can be inherited. On the constructed response, name this misconception, then give the Darwinian answer: heritable variation plus differential survival.

Mitosis vs. meiosis

Mitosis produces two genetically identical body cells for growth and repair. Meiosis halves the chromosome number to make sex cells (gametes), and only it contributes the variation passed to offspring in sexual reproduction.

Cellular respiration

The process that breaks down glucose using oxygen to release energy, producing carbon dioxide and water. It is the reverse of photosynthesis: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy.

How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related?

They are opposites. Photosynthesis stores light energy as glucose (CO₂ + water + light → glucose + oxygen); cellular respiration releases that stored energy (glucose + oxygen → CO₂ + water + energy).

Osmosis

The movement of water across a membrane from a region of low solute concentration to high. Adding salt outside a plant cell makes the surroundings hypertonic, so water leaves the cells and the plant wilts.

Mitochondrion vs. chloroplast

The mitochondrion releases energy through cellular respiration and is in both plant and animal cells. The chloroplast captures light for photosynthesis and is found only in plant cells.

Mixtures vs. compounds

A mixture combines substances that keep their own identity and can be separated by physical means (filtering, evaporation). A compound is chemically bonded and requires a chemical reaction to separate.

Observation vs. inference

An observation is information gathered directly through the senses or instruments. An inference is a logical conclusion drawn FROM observations — the exam tests these as look-alike distractors.

Controlled variables

The factors kept the same throughout an experiment to ensure a fair test. Along with one independent variable (changed) and a dependent variable (measured), they make results valid and reproducible.

Relative dating and superposition

Relative dating orders geologic events without exact ages. By superposition, lower rock layers are older; a fault or intrusion that cuts across layers is younger than what it cuts; an unconformity marks an erosion gap.

Why is a full moon never an eclipse?

A full moon sits opposite the Sun, so the two are never in the sky together. Moon phases come from changing Sun-Earth-Moon geometry, not from Earth's shadow — that misconception is a released-item trap.

Adaptation vs. accommodation

Adaptation is a heritable trait that spreads through a population over generations. Accommodation is a temporary, individual response (blood vessels narrowing in cold) and is not inherited — a top science distractor.

The 10 percent rule (energy in food chains)

Only about 10 percent of the energy at one trophic level passes to the next; the rest is lost as heat and life processes. This is why food chains are short, with few top consumers.

Three modes of heat transfer (with examples)

Conduction moves heat by direct contact (a metal spoon in soup), convection by moving fluids or air (boiling water, wind), and radiation by waves through space (the Sun warming Earth). Heat always flows from hot to cold.

Prime factorization

Writing a whole number as a product of its prime factors, usually in exponent form. For example, $360 = 2^{3} \times 3^{2} \times 5$. A common trap asks you to sum the exponents (here 3+2+1=6) versus the bases (2+3+5=10), so read the question exactly.

Write 360 as a product of primes in exponent form.

$360 = 2^{3} \times 3^{2} \times 5$. Build a factor tree ($360 \to 2 \times 180 \to \ldots \to 9 \times 5$) and collect the primes: three 2s, two 3s, one 5.

What tools are NOT provided on the CSET math subtest?

You get only a basic four-function on-screen calculator and NO formula sheet. Every area, volume, slope, and Pythagorean formula must be memorized cold — this is why Subtest II is the most-retaken part of the exam.

Slope-intercept form

The linear equation y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept (where the line crosses the y-axis).

How do the slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines compare?

Parallel lines have equal slopes. Perpendicular lines have slopes that multiply to $-1$ (negative reciprocals), e.g., 2 and $-\frac{1}{2}$.

Linear cost function

A relationship with a fixed base fee plus a constant per-unit rate, written $y = \text{base} + \text{rate} \times n$. Its constant rate of change graphs as a straight line; an accelerating or squared relationship graphs as a curve.

A 6-ft person casts a 4-ft shadow; a flagpole casts 30 ft. How tall is it?

45 feet. The shadows form similar triangles, so set height over shadow equal: 6/4 = h/30, giving 4h = 180, h = 45.

Special right triangles (side ratios)

A 45-45-90 triangle has sides in ratio $1 : 1 : \sqrt{2}$. A 30-60-90 triangle has sides in ratio $1 : \sqrt{3} : 2$ (short leg : long leg : hypotenuse). Memorize both — no formula sheet is given.

Scale-factor rule (k, $k^{2}$, $k^{3}$)

If every length of a figure is multiplied by k, then its area is multiplied by $k^{2}$ and its volume by $k^{3}$. For example, doubling all sides (k=2) gives $4\times$ the area and $8\times$ the volume.

Area and circumference of a circle

Area $= \pi r^{2}$ (graphs as an upward curve, not a line); circumference $= 2\pi r = \pi d$. A frequent error is squaring the diameter instead of the radius.

Volume of a cylinder

$V = \pi r^{2} h$ (base area times height). With r = 3 cm and h = 10 cm: $3.14 \times 9 \times 10 \approx 282.6$ cm$^{3}$. The common error is using the diameter for the radius or forgetting to square r.

Volume of a cone vs. a sphere

Cone volume $= \frac{1}{3}\pi r^{2} h$ (one-third of a cylinder with the same base and height). Sphere volume $= \frac{4}{3}\pi r^{3}$. Memorize both exactly — no formula sheet is provided.

Area of a trapezoid

$A = \frac{1}{2}(b_{1} + b_{2})h$ — average the two parallel sides, then multiply by the perpendicular height between them.

Common Pythagorean triples

Whole-number right-triangle side sets: (3,4,5), (5,12,13), and (8,15,17). Recognizing them lets you skip the square-root arithmetic.

Why is the median NOT the midpoint of the range?

The median is the positional middle of the ordered data, not the average of the smallest and largest values. You must sort the data and find the middle term; averaging the max and min is a top statistics trap.

How many integers are there from 4 to 24 inclusive?

21 values, computed as (high − low + 1) = 24 − 4 + 1. Forgetting the '+1' (the off-by-one error) is a frequent probability and counting mistake.

Key unit-conversion facts to memorize

1 inch = 2.54 cm and 1 cubic centimeter = 1 milliliter. Keep units consistent in every proportion; a common trap mixes inches with feet.

What are the math constructed-response items, and how is credit earned?

Two math items require you to handwrite your work, scan it at the workstation before time expires, then type an explanation. Unscanned work scores zero, and partial credit rewards every correct step shown.

Overload principle

The principle that the body adapts and grows fitter only when it is challenged beyond its normal demand. Gradually increasing FITT variables over time applies overload and produces the fitness gains.

Skill-related fitness components

Performance attributes tied to athletic skill rather than health: agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed. They are a common distractor for the five health-related components.

How do health-related and skill-related fitness components differ?

Health-related components (flexibility, muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiorespiratory endurance, body composition) support general health; skill-related components (agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, speed) support athletic performance.

Which fitness component does running or swimming build?

Cardiorespiratory endurance — sustained aerobic activity that makes the heart and lungs work efficiently over time. It is the most-tested health-related component on PE items.

Which fitness component do many push-ups or a long plank build?

Muscular endurance — the ability to repeat or sustain muscle contractions without fatigue. A single maximal lift would instead test muscular strength.

What does the 'T' in FITT add beyond F-I-T?

Type — the specific kind of activity chosen (e.g., jogging, tag, swimming). F-I-T are Frequency, Intensity, and Time; FITT adds Type to fully specify a program.

Biomechanics

The study of how forces such as gravity, friction, and Newton's laws of motion act on the moving body. Teacher cues like 'bend your knees' are applied biomechanics.

Center of gravity

The point at which body weight is balanced. Lowering it — for example by bending the knees and widening the stance — improves stability and balance.

Critical elements (PE)

The cue-level coaching points that make a motor skill mechanically sound, such as stepping in opposition when throwing or following through when kicking.

Is balancing on one foot locomotor or nonlocomotor?

Nonlocomotor (axial) — the body moves around its own axis but does not travel from one point to another. Travel (like skipping) would make it locomotor.

Cephalocaudal development

The head-to-toe direction of motor development: head and trunk control emerge before leg control. It explains why infants sit before they walk.

Proximodistal development

The center-outward direction of motor development: control near the body's midline develops before control of the extremities, so arm control precedes finger control.

Which develops first, gross or fine motor skills?

Gross motor skills (large-muscle movements like running and jumping) develop before fine motor skills (small, precise movements like buttoning a shirt).

Why can a growth spurt temporarily reduce coordination?

During rapid increases in height and weight, limb length changes faster than motor control can adapt, so a child may briefly become less coordinated.

What is the developmentally appropriate order, cooperation or competition?

Cooperation first — young children should master cooperative, self-referenced activities before competitive games are introduced, once they can handle winning and losing responsibly.

How does goal setting promote lifelong physical activity?

Realistic goals raise motivation, which improves adherence, which sustains a lifelong active lifestyle. This motivation-to-adherence chain is the logic the exam rewards.

Design a FITT plan to build cardiorespiratory endurance for third graders.

Frequency about 3 days/week, Intensity at a brisk heart-rate-raising pace, Time around 20 minutes, Type continuous aerobic play like jogging or tag, gradually increasing a variable to apply overload.

What must a comprehensive personal fitness program include?

All five health-related fitness components: flexibility, muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiorespiratory endurance, and body composition — not just one component.

Why does PE address the cultural and historical context of games?

Games, sports, and dance carry cultural and historical significance, and activities should give students chances for enjoyment, self-expression, and communication.

What does 'stepping in opposition' mean and why does it help?

Striding forward with the foot opposite the throwing arm rotates the hips and trunk into the throw, sequencing the body segments to add force and accuracy.

Piaget's four stages (in order)

Sensorimotor (0-2), Preoperational (2-7), Concrete Operational (7-11), and Formal Operational (12+). Thinking moves from concrete and sensory to abstract and hypothetical.

A 5-year-old thinks a tall glass holds more than a short wide one. Which Piaget stage?

Preoperational (2-7). The child lacks conservation and is still egocentric, so taller looks like more even though the amount is unchanged.

Conservation

The concrete-operational understanding that quantity stays the same when shape or arrangement changes (e.g., pouring water into a taller glass). It emerges around ages 7-11.

Egocentrism (Piaget)

The preoperational-stage inability to take another person's point of view. The child assumes others see and know exactly what they do.

Object permanence

The sensorimotor-stage realization that an object still exists even when it is out of sight. It develops in the first two years of life.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help from a more capable person. Instruction targeting the ZPD is most effective.

Scaffolding

Vygotsky's temporary, adjustable support a teacher provides and gradually withdraws as the child gains mastery. It helps the learner work within the ZPD.

A teacher gives hints, then removes them as a student masters a task. What is this?

Scaffolding — temporary support within the Zone of Proximal Development that is faded as the learner becomes independent (Vygotsky).

Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning

Preconventional (avoid punishment, seek reward), Conventional (gain approval, obey rules/laws), and Postconventional (social contract and universal principles). Judge by the stated reason, not the act.

A child shares only to avoid getting in trouble. Kohlberg level?

Preconventional — the choice is driven by avoiding punishment, which is the lowest moral-reasoning level and typical of young children.

A student follows a rule because 'rules keep the class fair.' Kohlberg level?

Conventional — the reasoning is based on maintaining rules and social approval, the second of Kohlberg's three levels.

Erikson's psychosocial crisis of adolescence

Identity vs. Role Confusion (ages 12-18). The teen's central task is forming a coherent sense of self; failure leads to confusion about one's role.

Erikson's stage for ages 6-11 (school years)

Industry vs. Inferiority. The healthy outcome is competence and pride in schoolwork; repeated failure can produce feelings of inferiority.

Erikson's earliest psychosocial crisis

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1). Responsive caregiving builds secure attachment and a basic trust that the world is dependable.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (bottom to top)

Physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Lower (basic) needs must be reasonably met before a child can pursue higher-order learning.

Why might a hungry or unsafe student struggle to learn (Maslow)?

Maslow's hierarchy holds that unmet basic needs (physiological, safety) take priority, so the child cannot reach the higher esteem and learning levels until those are met.

Bandura's social learning theory

Children learn new behaviors by observing and imitating models, not only through direct reward. This is why modeling prosocial behavior is effective.

Bobo doll study

Bandura's experiment showing children who watched an adult act aggressively toward a doll later imitated that aggression — evidence for observational learning.

Gardner's multiple intelligences (examples)

Gardner proposed intelligence is several distinct capacities — linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, and interpersonal — implying instruction should be differentiated to student strengths.

Mandated reporter (California teachers)

A professional legally required to report suspected child abuse or neglect. California teachers are mandated reporters, so recognizing signs of abuse is both tested content and a legal duty.

Timbre

The tone color or quality of a sound — why a flute and a violin sound different playing the same pitch. An element of music.

Meter (music)

How beats are grouped into regular measures, such as duple (groups of two) or triple (groups of three). An element of music.

Form (music)

The overall structure or plan of a piece, such as AB, ABA, or verse-chorus. An element of music describing how sections are organized.

Elements of art vs. principles of design

Elements (line, shape, form, color, value, texture, space) are the visual building blocks; principles (balance, contrast, emphasis, etc.) are how those blocks are arranged. This is the #1 visual-art distractor.

Name the seven elements of art.

Line, shape, form, color, value, texture, and space — the basic visual building blocks of any work of art.

Linear perspective

A technique that creates the illusion of depth on a flat surface by drawing parallel lines so they converge at a vanishing point on the horizon.

Vanishing point

The single spot on the horizon line where parallel lines appear to meet, producing the depth illusion in linear perspective.

Emphasis (principle of design)

The principle of design that draws the viewer's eye to a focal point in a work. If a question asks how an artist drew attention to one spot, the answer is emphasis.

Primary vs. secondary colors

Primary colors — red, yellow, blue — cannot be mixed from other colors. Secondary colors — orange, green, violet — are each made by mixing two primaries.

Tint vs. shade

A tint is a color plus white (e.g., pink); a shade is a color plus black (e.g., maroon). Both alter a color's value.

Value (visual art)

The lightness or darkness of a color — an element of art. Adding white makes a tint; adding black makes a shade.

Aristotle's six elements of drama

Plot, Character, Thought (theme), Diction (language/dialogue), Music (sound), and Spectacle (visual/staging). Modern lists add Setting as a seventh.

Aristotle's elements vs. technical theatre elements

Aristotle's elements (plot, character, thought, diction, music, spectacle) are the dramatic structure; technical/design elements (scenery, lighting, sound, costumes, makeup, props) are the behind-the-scenes staging.

Non-representational (found) materials

Everyday or recycled objects, like cardboard, repurposed to build props or puppets. Emphasized in the post-2022 technical theatre standards.

Dramatic play / guided drama

Improvised role-play; the foundational, exploratory drama experience for young learners.

Improvisation (dance/theatre)

Spontaneous, unplanned movement or performance created in the moment, in contrast to choreography, which is deliberately arranged.

Kinesthetic awareness

The body's internal sense of its own position and movement in space. A frequently tested cross-discipline dance term.

The five legacy VAPA strands

Artistic Perception, Creative Expression, Historical/Cultural Context, Aesthetic Valuing, and Connections — the older California framing that crosswalks to the four artistic processes.

A student judges a painting's success — which artistic process?

Responding (legacy strand Aesthetic Valuing). Responding follows perceive → interpret → evaluate. Relating the work to its time period instead would be Connecting.

Space, Time, and Energy in dance

Space includes level, direction, and pathway; Time includes tempo and rhythm; Energy is the quality of movement (e.g., sharp vs. sustained). Part of the BASTE elements.