Your FREE CompTIA A+ Flashcards 2026 – 250+ Cards

Random Access Memory — fast, volatile system memory that holds running programs and data; cleared when power is lost.

DDR5 is the newer RAM generation: higher bandwidth and base speed, lower voltage (1.1V vs 1.2V), and on-module power management. Slots are keyed differently and are not interchangeable.

Error-Correcting Code memory detects and corrects single-bit errors; used in servers/workstations where data integrity is critical. Requires CPU/board support.

Small Outline DIMM — the compact RAM form factor used in laptops and small-form-factor PCs.

It physically and electrically connects the CPU to the motherboard. Intel uses LGA (pins on the socket); AMD AM4 uses PGA (pins on the CPU), while AM5 moved to LGA.

SATA SSDs use the AHCI/SATA bus (≈600 MB/s max). NVMe SSDs run over PCIe lanes (M.2 or add-in), giving multi-GB/s speeds and much lower latency.

Both are small SSD form factors. M.2 supports either SATA or NVMe (PCIe) and uses B/M keying; mSATA is older and SATA-only.

Striping across 2+ disks for speed/capacity. No redundancy — one drive failure loses all data.

Mirroring — identical copies on two drives. Full redundancy; usable capacity is half the total.

Striping with distributed parity across 3+ disks. Survives one drive failure; good balance of speed, capacity, and redundancy.

A stripe of mirrors (RAID 1+0). Needs 4+ drives; combines RAID 0 speed with RAID 1 redundancy.

The power supply unit converts AC wall power to the DC voltages (+3.3V, +5V, +12V) the PC components need.

+3.3V and +5V power logic and older peripherals; +12V powers the CPU, GPU, and drive motors and is the dominant rail in modern systems.

A certification of PSU efficiency (Bronze, Silver, Gold, Platinum, Titanium) — higher tiers waste less power as heat.

Firmware on the motherboard that initializes hardware at power-on (POST) and starts the boot process. UEFI is the modern replacement with GUI, Secure Boot, and >2TB GPT disk support.

Power-On Self-Test — the firmware's hardware check at startup. Failures are signaled by beep codes or POST/diagnostic LEDs.

A coin-cell (CR2032) that keeps BIOS/UEFI settings and the real-time clock powered when the PC is off. A dead one resets the clock/settings.

Trusted Platform Module — a chip that stores cryptographic keys; required for BitLocker and Windows 11 (TPM 2.0).

ATX is the full-size motherboard standard; microATX and Mini-ITX are progressively smaller with fewer expansion slots for compact builds.

Peripheral Component Interconnect Express — the high-speed expansion bus for GPUs, NVMe SSDs, and add-in cards. Slots come in x1, x4, x8, x16 lane widths.

A heat-conductive compound applied between the CPU and heatsink to fill microscopic gaps and improve heat transfer.

Integrated graphics share system RAM and are built into the CPU; a dedicated GPU has its own VRAM and far higher performance.

Sprays liquid ink droplets onto paper. Maintenance: clean/calibrate heads, replace cartridges, avoid clogs.

Processing, Charging, Exposing, Developing, Transferring, Fusing, Cleaning — the order a laser printer puts toner on the page and prepares for the next.

Uses heat to create images on heat-sensitive paper (receipts) or via a ribbon. Maintenance: replace paper/ribbon and clean the heating element.

Strikes an inked ribbon against paper through pins — the only common printer for multipart carbon forms.

The printer component that automatically prints on both sides of the page.

Network Interface Card — the adapter (wired or wireless) that connects a device to a network.

Keyboard-Video-Mouse switch — lets one set of peripherals control multiple computers.

USB-C is a reversible connector. Thunderbolt 3/4 uses the USB-C connector to add very high bandwidth, PCIe tunneling, and DisplayPort for docks and external GPUs.

Both carry digital video and audio. DisplayPort is common on PCs/monitors (supports daisy-chaining via MST); HDMI is common on TVs and consumer gear.

Special-purpose computers (industrial control, medical, IoT) with limited resources; often kept off the main network for security.

Hardware (e.g., RAID drives, USB devices) that can be added or removed while the system is running.

IPS = best color/viewing angles; TN = fastest response, cheapest, poorer angles; OLED = per-pixel light for true blacks and high contrast.

A Host Bus Adapter connects a server to storage (SAS/Fibre Channel) without RAID logic, passing drives to the OS or software RAID.

Molex is the older 4-pin DC connector for legacy drives/fans; SATA power is the flat 15-pin connector for modern drives.

Measures voltage, current, and resistance/continuity — used to test PSU rails, cables, and fuses.

A second PSU in a server so the system keeps running if one supply fails.

Motherboard logic that manages communication between the CPU, memory, expansion buses, and peripherals.

Installing matched RAM modules in the correct paired slots enables 2× or 4× memory bandwidth (dual/quad channel) versus single channel.

External SATA — a port for connecting external drives at internal-SATA speeds.

An adapter that lets expansion cards mount parallel to the motherboard in low-profile/rackmount cases.

An HDD stores data on spinning magnetic platters (cheaper per GB, slower, mechanical). An SSD uses flash memory (faster, silent, more durable, no moving parts).

Revolutions per minute of the platters — common are 5,400 (laptops/quiet) and 7,200 (desktops/performance).

CD, DVD, and Blu-ray drives — read/write optical discs; increasingly rare in modern PCs.

Spacers that hold the motherboard off the case to prevent short circuits — a missing or extra one can stop a system from posting.

Tiny header wires (power button, reset, power/HDD LEDs, USB, audio) that connect the case to the motherboard.

A device that connects a laptop to multiple peripherals (monitors, network, power) through a single connection.

Hardware shutters or BIOS toggles can physically disable a built-in camera/mic for privacy.

VGA is an analog video connector (15-pin); being phased out in favor of digital HDMI/DisplayPort.

M-key slots carry PCIe x4 (NVMe); B-key carries SATA/PCIe x2; B+M cards fit both but at lower speed.

A logical address that identifies a device on a network. IPv4 uses 32 bits (dotted decimal, e.g., 192.168.1.10); IPv6 uses 128 bits.

IPv4 = 32-bit (≈4.3 billion addresses, dotted decimal). IPv6 = 128-bit (hex, colon-separated) for a vastly larger address space and built-in features.

10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16 — non-routable on the public internet; used behind NAT.

169.254.0.0/16 — a self-assigned address a host uses when no DHCP server responds (a sign of a DHCP problem).

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol — automatically assigns IP address, subnet mask, gateway, and DNS to clients. Uses ports 67/68.

Domain Name System — resolves hostnames (example.com) to IP addresses. Uses port 53.

An A record maps a hostname to an IPv4 address; an AAAA record maps it to an IPv6 address.

Mail Exchanger record — directs email for a domain to its mail servers.

Canonical Name — an alias pointing one hostname to another hostname.

Text records hold verification/email-authentication data; SPF, DKIM, and DMARC use TXT records to fight spoofing.

It separates the network portion of an IP from the host portion, defining which addresses are on the same local network (e.g., 255.255.255.0 = /24).

The router IP that a host sends traffic to when the destination is on a different network.

Network Address Translation — lets many private IPs share one public IP, conserving addresses and hiding the internal network.

80 = HTTP (unencrypted web); 443 = HTTPS (TLS-encrypted web).

SSH — secure remote command-line access and secure file transfer (SFTP/SCP).

RDP — Microsoft Remote Desktop Protocol for remote GUI access.

DNS — name resolution (UDP for queries, TCP for zone transfers/large responses).

FTP — file transfer (21 control, 20 data); unencrypted.

23 = Telnet (unencrypted remote console, insecure); 22 = SSH (encrypted) — always prefer SSH.

SMTP for sending mail: 25 (server-to-server), 587 (submission with STARTTLS), 465 (implicit TLS).

110 = POP3 (downloads mail), 143 = IMAP (syncs mail across devices).

SMB — Windows file and printer sharing.

LDAP directory services: 389 plaintext, 636 LDAPS (encrypted).

SNMP — network device monitoring and management.

TCP is connection-oriented and reliable (handshake, ordering, retransmission). UDP is connectionless and fast with no guarantees — used for streaming, VoIP, DNS.

A Layer-2 device that forwards frames between devices on the same LAN using MAC addresses; each port is its own collision domain.

A Layer-3 device that forwards packets between different networks using IP addresses and routing tables.

Managed switches support VLANs, QoS, and configuration; unmanaged switches just forward traffic with no setup.

Virtual LAN — logically segments one physical switch into separate broadcast domains for isolation and security.

Power over Ethernet — delivers electrical power and data over one Ethernet cable to devices like APs, cameras, and phones.

2.4 GHz = longer range, more interference, slower. 5 GHz = faster, shorter range. 6 GHz (Wi-Fi 6E) adds more clean spectrum.

802.11n (Wi-Fi 4), ac (Wi-Fi 5), ax (Wi-Fi 6/6E), be (Wi-Fi 7) — each newer standard adds speed and efficiency.

The current Wi-Fi security standard — stronger encryption (SAE) than WPA2; always prefer it over WPA2/WPA/WEP.

Cat 5e (1 Gbps), Cat 6 (1–10 Gbps short runs), Cat 6a (10 Gbps to 100m), Cat 7/8 (higher-speed/shielded).

Straight-through connects unlike devices (PC↔switch); crossover connects like devices (switch↔switch) — though Auto-MDIX usually makes it automatic now.

Single-mode = small core, laser, very long distance. Multimode = larger core, LED/VCSEL, shorter distance, cheaper.

RG-6 coax carries cable TV and cable-internet (DOCSIS) signals using F-type connectors.

Fire-rated cabling with low-smoke jacketing required in air-handling spaces (plenums) by fire code.

RJ45 = 8-pin Ethernet connector; RJ11 = smaller 6-pin telephone connector.

A device or software that filters network traffic by rules (ports, IPs, applications) to block unwanted connections.

A perimeter network segment for public-facing servers, isolated from the internal LAN.

Maps an external port on the router to an internal host/port so outside users can reach an internal service.

Ties a specific IP to a device's MAC address so it always gets the same address from DHCP.

Wireless Access Point — bridges wireless clients onto the wired network.

Service Set Identifier — the broadcast name of a Wi-Fi network.

Internet of Things — smart thermostats, plugs, cameras, doorbells, and voice assistants; should be segmented from the main network.

DSL (phone line), cable (coax/DOCSIS), fiber (fastest), cellular (4G/5G), and satellite (high latency, remote areas).

Optical Network Terminal — converts the fiber signal to Ethernet at the customer premises.

Multicast DNS resolves .local names on a LAN without a DNS server — used by AirPrint and casting.

Infrastructure as a Service — rent raw compute, storage, and networking (e.g., virtual machines); you manage the OS and apps.

Platform as a Service — a managed environment to build and deploy apps without managing servers or the OS.

Software as a Service — ready-to-use applications over the internet (e.g., email, Microsoft 365); the provider manages everything.

Public = shared provider infrastructure; private = dedicated to one organization; hybrid = a mix; community = shared by related organizations.

The ability to automatically scale resources up or down with demand (rapid elasticity), often paired with metered, pay-as-you-go billing.

Software that creates and runs virtual machines. Type 1 runs on bare metal (ESXi, Hyper-V); Type 2 runs on a host OS (VirtualBox, VMware Workstation).

A virtual machine needs adequate host CPU, RAM, storage, and network — and CPU virtualization support (Intel VT-x / AMD-V) enabled in firmware.

An isolated environment for safely running or testing untrusted code/apps without affecting the host system.

Virtual Desktop Infrastructure — hosts user desktops as VMs in a data center or cloud, accessed remotely.

Services (OneDrive, iCloud, Google Drive) that keep files mirrored across devices and the cloud automatically.

On older CCFL laptop screens, the inverter supplied high-voltage AC to the backlight — a common cause of a dim/dark display. LED screens don't use one.

The touch-sensing layer over a screen that converts touch/stylus input into coordinates.

Near Field Communication — very short-range wireless for tap-to-pay and pairing.

Short-range wireless link to peripherals; pair by enabling Bluetooth, making the device discoverable, selecting it, and confirming a code.

Sharing a phone's cellular data with other devices over Wi-Fi (hotspot), USB, or Bluetooth (tethering).

Disables all radios (cellular, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) at once; Wi-Fi/Bluetooth can be re-enabled individually.

IMAP syncs mail and folders across all devices (preferred); POP3 downloads mail to one device.

Sync to the cloud, to a desktop (cable/Wi-Fi), or to an automobile (Bluetooth/USB); needs adequate storage and a stable connection.

Mobile Device Management — centrally enforces policies, apps, encryption, and remote wipe on company phones/tablets.

Devices roam between LTE/4G and 5G; PRL/baseband updates keep the radio working with carrier networks.

An embedded, reprogrammable SIM — switch carriers/plans without a physical SIM card.

GPS uses satellites for outdoor positioning; phones combine it with Wi-Fi and cellular for faster indoor location.

Internal laptop card slots for Wi-Fi, cellular (WWAN), and NVMe storage.

Use a manufacturer-approved Li-ion pack; a swelling battery is a safety hazard and must be replaced and recycled, not punctured.

Fn key toggles secondary laptop functions (brightness, volume, external display, wireless, keyboard backlight).

Extend or mirror to external monitors via HDMI/DisplayPort/USB-C; toggle modes with the display key or Win+P.

Sensors that detect device orientation and motion for auto-rotate and gaming.

Cloud resources are multi-tenant and billed by use (CPU-hours, GB stored, bandwidth) — the consumption model that makes it cost-flexible.

Cloud providers pool compute/storage across many customers, dynamically assigning capacity on demand.

A core cloud characteristic: users provision resources instantly through a portal/API without human intervention.

Identify the problem — gather information, question the user, identify recent changes, and back up data before making changes.

Establish a theory of probable cause — question the obvious; consider multiple approaches (top-to-bottom / divide and conquer).

Test the theory to determine cause — if confirmed, plan the fix; if not, establish a new theory or escalate.

Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution (refer to vendor docs as needed).

Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures.

Document findings, actions, and outcomes.

Identify → Theory → Test → Plan & implement → Verify (+ prevent) → Document.

Verify the wall outlet, PSU power switch, and power cable; confirm the PSU voltage switch and front-panel button wiring.

Patterns at startup that indicate which component failed (RAM, GPU, CPU) before video is available.

Could be overheating, failing PSU, bad RAM, or corrupt OS — test components and check temps and event logs.

Power off immediately and unplug — likely a failing PSU or capacitor; a safety hazard.

Thermal shutdowns, throttling, loud fans — clean dust, reseat/replace heatsink, reapply thermal paste, check fan operation.

A failing mechanical HDD — back up immediately; the click of death precedes failure.

Self-Monitoring data warning of impending drive failure — back up and replace the drive.

A drive dropped from the array — replace the failed disk and rebuild; never write to a degraded array carelessly.

Check monitor power/cable/input, reseat the GPU/RAM, try integrated graphics or another cable/monitor.

Check resolution/refresh settings and cable; on laptops, a dim screen can be the backlight or inverter (legacy).

Dead pixels stay black (defect); stuck pixels show a fixed color and may be recoverable.

A faint ghost of a static image on OLED/plasma from prolonged display of the same content.

Verify the cable/link lights, then run ipconfig; a 169.254.x.x address means DHCP failed.

Check for loose cables, interference, failing NIC/cable, duplex mismatch, or an overloaded AP.

Possible causes: signal interference, channel congestion, bad cable, duplex mismatch, or bandwidth saturation.

Tests reachability and latency to a host using ICMP echo requests.

Displays/refreshes a host's IP configuration (ipconfig on Windows, ifconfig/ip on Linux).

Shows the path (hops) packets take to a destination — helps locate where connectivity breaks.

Queries DNS to resolve names and diagnose name-resolution problems.

Laser: low toner or a failing transfer process; inkjet: low ink or clogged heads — replace/clean as needed.

A worn drum or fuser leaving a faint repeating image — replace the affected component.

Often the wrong/corrupt print driver — reinstall the correct driver and clear the print queue.

Caused by worn rollers, wrong paper, or debris — clear gently in the direction of paper travel and check rollers.

Home (consumer), Pro (BitLocker, domain join, Group Policy), Pro for Workstations, and Enterprise (volume-licensed advanced management).

Active Directory domain join centralizes authentication, Group Policy, and management — a Pro/Enterprise feature, not Home.

Workgroup = decentralized peer-to-peer, each PC manages its own accounts. Domain = centralized accounts/policy via Active Directory.

Windows full-disk encryption (Pro+) that uses the TPM to protect data if a device is lost or stolen.

Encrypting File System — Windows file/folder-level encryption (NTFS), separate from full-disk BitLocker.

NTFS = Windows default with permissions, encryption, journaling. FAT32 = max 4GB file size, broad compatibility. exFAT = large files for flash/cross-platform.

Granular per-user/group permissions (Read, Write, Modify, Full Control) that apply locally and over the network.

When both apply over the network, the most restrictive of the share and NTFS permission wins.

Windows command to view and manage IP configuration (/all, /release, /renew, /flushdns).

Checks a disk for file-system errors and bad sectors; /f fixes errors, /r recovers readable data.

System File Checker scans and repairs corrupted Windows system files.

Deployment Image Servicing and Management — repairs the Windows component store/image (often before sfc).

gpupdate refreshes Group Policy; gpresult shows the resultant set of policies applied.

Maps a network drive to a shared folder from the command line.

A command-line disk partitioning utility (create/delete/format partitions).

Monitors and ends processes, views performance/startup apps, and checks resource usage.

System Configuration — manages boot options and services; startup app management moved to Task Manager.

Logs system, security, and application events — the first stop for diagnosing errors and crashes.

Manages hardware devices and drivers; a yellow triangle flags a problem device.

GUI tool to initialize, partition, format, and resize disks and change drive letters.

Edits the Windows Registry — the hierarchical database of OS/app settings. Back up before editing.

Configures local computer and user policies (Pro+).

Track detailed real-time and historical performance counters for troubleshooting.

Both configure Windows; Microsoft is gradually moving options from the classic Control Panel into the Settings app.

Prompts for consent/elevation before allowing administrative changes — reduces malware impact.

Standard users run with least privilege; admin accounts can change the system. Use standard accounts for daily work.

Installs a new Windows version while keeping apps, settings, and files.

Wipes the drive and installs a fresh OS — best for major issues; requires backing up data first.

MBR = legacy partitioning, max 2TB and 4 primary partitions. GPT = modern (UEFI), supports >2TB and many partitions.

Install/boot from USB, optical, network (PXE), or internal drive; set boot order in UEFI/BIOS.

A hidden partition with Windows Recovery Environment for repair, reset, and Startup Repair.

Rolls Windows system files/settings back to an earlier restore point without affecting personal files.

Boots Windows with minimal drivers/services to troubleshoot driver and startup problems.

Apple's built-in automatic backup to an external/network drive, allowing point-in-time restores.

System-wide search for files, apps, and information.

Manage open windows and multiple virtual desktops.

Repairs disks (First Aid), formats, and manages volumes/images.

Gatekeeper restricts app sources; FileVault provides full-disk encryption.

ls lists files, cd changes directory, pwd prints the working directory.

chmod sets file permissions; chown changes the owner/group.

sudo runs a single command with elevated rights; su switches to another (often root) user.

Package managers to install and update software (apt on Debian/Ubuntu; yum/dnf on RHEL/Fedora).

grep searches text, ps lists processes, kill terminates a process by PID.

cat displays a file; nano and vi are text editors for config files.

64-bit supports far more RAM (>4GB) and runs 64-bit apps; 32-bit is limited to ~4GB and legacy software.

Before install/upgrade, confirm CPU, RAM, storage, and (for Windows 11) TPM 2.0 and Secure Boot.

The core security goals: Confidentiality (keep data private), Integrity (keep it accurate/unaltered), and Availability (keep it accessible).

Authentication proves who you are; authorization determines what you're allowed to do.

Requires two or more factors: something you know (password), have (token/phone), or are (biometric). Strongly resists credential theft.

Give users only the minimum access needed to do their job — limits damage from compromise or mistakes.

Malicious code that attaches to a file/program and spreads when that host is run by a user.

Self-replicating malware that spreads across networks on its own, without user action.

Malware disguised as legitimate software; it doesn't self-replicate but opens a backdoor or payload when run.

Encrypts the victim's files and demands payment for the key; defense is offline backups and user awareness.

Secretly collects user activity/keystrokes and data.

Stealthy malware that hides itself and gains privileged (root/kernel) control; very hard to detect/remove.

Compromised devices remotely controlled as a group, often for DDoS or spam.

Malware that hijacks a device's CPU/GPU to mine cryptocurrency, slowing the system.

Fraudulent emails/messages that trick users into revealing credentials or clicking malicious links.

Spear phishing targets a specific person/group with tailored bait; whaling targets executives/high-value people.

Phishing by voice call (vishing) or SMS text (smishing).

Following an authorized person through a secure door without badging in.

Observing someone's screen/keypad to steal credentials or data.

Pretending to be someone (IT, a vendor, an executive) with a fabricated story to gain access or info.

Searching discarded trash for sensitive documents — countered by shredding.

A fake access point mimicking a legitimate Wi-Fi network to capture traffic/credentials.

An attacker secretly relays/alters traffic between two parties.

Flooding a service with traffic to make it unavailable; DDoS uses many distributed sources (a botnet).

Brute force tries every combination; a dictionary attack tries likely passwords from a list.

An attack exploiting a vulnerability before a patch exists.

Web attacks that inject malicious database queries (SQLi) or scripts (XSS) via unvalidated input.

WEP is broken (never use); WPA2 (AES/CCMP) is acceptable; WPA3 is the strongest current standard.

Wi-Fi Protected Setup's PIN method is brute-forceable — disable WPS.

Allows/denies devices by hardware address — a weak control (MACs are spoofable), used as a minor layer.

Filters traffic by rules; Windows Defender Firewall is the built-in host firewall.

Software that detects, quarantines, and removes malware; EDR adds behavioral detection and response.

Securely erase data before disposal/reuse: drive wipe (overwrite), secure erase, degaussing, or physical destruction (shred/drill).

A standard format leaves data recoverable; secure erase/overwrite or destruction is required to truly remove sensitive data.

Locks, badge/access cards, mantraps/access control vestibules, bollards, fences, security guards, and cameras.

Authentication by physical traits — fingerprint, face, retina/iris, voice.

Physical items used as an authentication factor (something you have).

Grant permissions to groups rather than individuals to manage access at scale.

Length and complexity, no reuse, MFA, lockout policies, and a password manager — avoid expiration-only policies.

Auto-locks an idle device requiring re-authentication — basic endpoint protection.

Encrypt stored data (BitLocker/FileVault) and data moving over networks (TLS/HTTPS, VPN).

A Virtual Private Network encrypts traffic over an untrusted network, protecting remote-access communications.

Certificates bind a public key to an identity (issued by a CA) to enable HTTPS and code signing.

Running as a standard user plus UAC prompts limits what malware can change.

Install software only from reputable vendors/stores; untrusted sources are a top malware vector.

Data Loss Prevention — tools/policies that detect and block sensitive data from leaving the organization.

Lost/stolen phones are protected by full-device encryption, screen locks, find-my-device, and remote wipe (often via MDM).

A Blue Screen (Windows) or spinning pinwheel (macOS) signals a crash — check recent driver/update changes, run diagnostics, review logs, boot to Safe Mode.

1) Investigate/verify symptoms, 2) Quarantine, 3) Disable System Restore (Windows), 4) Remediate (update + scan), 5) Schedule scans/updates, 6) Re-enable System Restore & create a restore point, 7) Educate the user.

Isolating the infected system stops malware from spreading to the network/other devices during remediation.

User behavior is the most common infection vector — training prevents recurrence after the cleanup.

Repair or reinstall the app, update it/the OS, check compatibility, clear cache, and review event logs.

Check resource usage (Task Manager), startup apps, malware, disk space, overheating, and pending updates.

Signs of adware/PUPs or a hijacked browser — remove extensions, reset the browser, and run anti-malware.

An invalid/expired/untrusted certificate — verify the site, check the system clock, and don't bypass for sensitive sites.

Clear app cache/data, update the app and OS, free storage, and reinstall if needed.

Caused by rogue apps, poor signal, or a failing battery — check battery usage by app, update apps, replace a swollen battery.

Toggle airplane mode, reset network settings, check APN/Wi-Fi, and confirm signal.

High data/resource usage, unexpected ads, fake apps, and leaked data — install from official stores only and use mobile anti-malware.

Electrostatic discharge can destroy components — use an antistatic wrist strap and mat, and handle cards by the edges.

Touch a grounded metal part before handling components when no strap is available; ensure equipment is properly grounded.

Safety Data Sheet — documents safe handling, storage, and disposal of chemicals (toner, batteries, cleaners).

Recycle batteries and toner per local regulations and the SDS — never in regular trash.

Use a Class C (electrical) extinguisher on energized electrical fires — never water.

Lift with the legs, not the back; follow weight limits and use proper carts/placement.

A surge protector blocks voltage spikes; a UPS adds battery backup for clean shutdown during outages.

A documented process to request, assess, approve, schedule, implement, and review changes — reduces risk and outages.

Documented business reason, scope, risk analysis, rollback plan, end-user acceptance, change board approval, and a maintenance window.

Full = everything. Incremental = changes since the last backup (fast backup, slower restore). Differential = changes since the last full (slower backup, faster restore).

Keep 3 copies of data, on 2 different media, with 1 copy offsite — protects against most failures.

Track issues with clear, complete tickets; document fixes in a knowledge base for reuse.

Maintain inventory of hardware/software/licenses and up-to-date topology diagrams for support and compliance.

Acceptable Use Policy — defines how employees may use company systems and data.

Document and preserve evidence (who handled it, when) so it stays admissible; report incidents through proper channels.

Protect Personally Identifiable Info, health info (HIPAA), and cardholder data (PCI DSS) with encryption and access control; report breaches.

Common script types: Windows batch (.bat), PowerShell (.ps1), shell (.sh), Python (.py), JavaScript (.js), VBScript (.vbs).

Automate installs, backups, restarts, and account changes — but unintended consequences, mistyped variables, and malware in scripts are real risks.

Use clear language (avoid jargon), actively listen, set/meet expectations, maintain a positive attitude, and follow up.

Stay calm, don't argue or dismiss, don't disclose on social media, and protect customer data and privacy at all times.

RDP, SSH, VNC, MSRA (Quick Assist), and third-party tools provide remote access — secure them and get consent.