- Phonemic awareness
- The ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. It is entirely oral — no letters involved.
- Phonological awareness
- A broad awareness of the sound structure of spoken language: rhymes, syllables, onset-rime, and phonemes. Phonemic awareness is its most advanced level.
- Phoneme
- The smallest unit of sound in a language. The word 'cat' has three phonemes: /k/ /a/ /t/.
- Grapheme
- A letter or group of letters that represents a single sound (phoneme), such as 'sh' for /sh/.
- Phonics
- Instruction that links letters and letter patterns to the sounds they represent so readers can decode printed words.
- Decoding
- Translating printed letters into the sounds and words they represent in order to read.
- Encoding
- Translating spoken sounds into written letters — that is, spelling. The inverse of decoding.
- Digraph
- Two letters that together stand for one sound, such as 'sh,' 'ch,' 'th,' or 'wh.'
- Consonant blend
- Two or more consonants whose sounds are each still heard, such as 'st' in 'stop' or 'bl' in 'blue.'
- Diphthong
- A single vowel sound that glides from one sound to another within one syllable, such as 'oi' in 'coin' or 'ou' in 'out.'
- Onset and rime
- In a syllable, the onset is the beginning consonant sound(s) and the rime is the vowel and what follows. In 'cat,' /k/ is the onset and /at/ is the rime.
- Closed syllable
- A syllable that ends in a consonant, usually making the vowel short, such as 'cat' or 'nap.'
- Open syllable
- A syllable that ends in a vowel, usually making the vowel long, such as 'go' or 'hi.'
- Silent-e (VCe) rule
- A final silent 'e' makes the preceding vowel long, turning 'cap' into 'cape' and 'hop' into 'hope.'
- Morpheme
- The smallest unit of meaning in a language. 'Rebuilding' has three morphemes: re-, build, and -ing.
- Free morpheme
- A morpheme that can stand alone as a word, such as 'book' or 'run.'
- Bound morpheme
- A morpheme that must attach to another, such as the prefix 'un-' or the suffix '-ing.'
- Prefix
- A word part added to the front of a base word that changes its meaning, such as 'un-' (not) or 're-' (again).
- Suffix
- A word part added to the end of a base word, such as '-ed' (past tense) or '-s' (plural).
- Root word
- The base part of a word that carries its core meaning and to which affixes are added.
- Sight words
- High-frequency words a reader recognizes instantly, without sounding them out (e.g., the, said, was).
- Fluency
- Reading with accuracy, an appropriate rate, and expression, so attention is freed for comprehension.
- Vocabulary
- Knowledge of word meanings; the bridge between decoding words and comprehending text.
- Comprehension
- Constructing meaning from text — the ultimate goal of reading instruction.
- Five pillars of reading
- Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (National Reading Panel).
- Concepts of print
- Early understanding of how print works: reading left to right, top to bottom, and that words carry meaning.
- Context clues
- Hints in surrounding text that help a reader figure out an unfamiliar word's meaning.
- Inference
- A conclusion a reader draws from textual evidence and reasoning that the text implies but does not state.
- Main idea
- The central point a passage makes; supporting details explain or back it up.
- Summarizing
- Restating the most important ideas of a text briefly in one's own words.
- Literary (fiction) text
- Imaginative writing such as stories, poems, and plays. Informational text, by contrast, conveys facts.
- Informational (nonfiction) text
- Text that conveys factual information, often using features like headings, glossaries, and indexes.
- Genre
- A category of text with shared features, such as folktale, fable, biography, poetry, or mystery.
- Fable
- A short story, often with animal characters, that teaches a moral lesson.
- Text features
- Elements like headings, captions, glossaries, indexes, and bold print that help readers locate and understand information.
- Glossary
- An alphabetical list of key terms and their definitions, usually at the back of an informational book.
- Index
- An alphabetical list of topics with page numbers, used to find specific information in a book.
- Writing process
- The recursive stages of writing: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing.
- Prewriting
- The first stage of writing: brainstorming, planning, and organizing ideas before drafting.
- Revising
- Improving a draft's content, organization, and clarity by adding, cutting, or reordering ideas.
- Editing
- Correcting the mechanics of a draft: grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization.
- Subject-verb agreement
- The rule that a verb matches its subject in number — a singular subject takes a singular verb.
- Common noun vs. proper noun
- A common noun names a general thing (city); a proper noun names a specific one and is capitalized (Chicago).
- Complete sentence
- A group of words with a subject and a predicate (verb) that expresses a complete thought.
- Simile
- A comparison using 'like' or 'as,' such as 'as brave as a lion.'
- Metaphor
- A direct comparison stating one thing is another, such as 'the classroom was a zoo.'
- Synonym vs. antonym
- Synonyms have similar meanings (big/large); antonyms have opposite meanings (big/small).
- Place value
- The value of a digit depends on its position; the 7 in 4,873 is in the tens place and is worth 70.
- Standard form
- A number written with digits, such as 4,873.
- Expanded form
- A number written as the sum of each digit's place value: 4,873 = 4,000 + 800 + 70 + 3.
- Rounding
- Replacing a number with a nearby, simpler value; 47,382 rounds to 47,000 to the nearest thousand.
- Order of operations (PEMDAS)
- Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication/Division (left to right), then Addition/Subtraction (left to right).
- Factor
- A number that divides evenly into another; 1, 2, 3, and 6 are the factors of 6.
- Multiple
- The product of a number and an integer; 4, 8, and 12 are multiples of 4.
- Least common multiple (LCM)
- The smallest multiple shared by two numbers; the LCM of 4 and 6 is 12.
- Greatest common factor (GCF)
- The largest factor shared by two numbers; the GCF of 8 and 12 is 4.
- Prime number
- A whole number greater than 1 with exactly two factors, 1 and itself (2, 3, 5, 7, 11).
- Composite number
- A whole number greater than 1 with more than two factors, such as 4, 6, 8, or 9.
- Integer
- A whole number and its opposite, including zero: ..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...
- Adding integers
- -8 + 5 = -3; combine signs: same signs add and keep the sign, different signs subtract and take the larger sign.
- Subtracting a negative
- Subtracting a negative adds: 7 - (-3) = 7 + 3 = 10.
- Fraction
- A number representing part of a whole, written as a numerator over a denominator, such as 1/4.
- Equivalent fractions
- Fractions that name the same value, such as 1/2 = 2/4 = 3/6.
- Decimal-to-fraction
- 0.25 = 25/100 = 1/4 in lowest terms.
- Comparing decimals
- Line up place values: 0.405 < 0.45 < 0.5.
- Percent
- A ratio out of 100; 25% means 25 per 100, or 0.25, or 1/4.
- Ratio
- A comparison of two quantities; 6:9 is equivalent to 2:3 when simplified.
- Proportion
- An equation stating two ratios are equal, such as 2/3 = 4/6.
- Commutative property
- Order doesn't matter for addition or multiplication: a + b = b + a; a × b = b × a.
- Associative property
- Grouping doesn't matter for addition or multiplication: (a × b) × c = a × (b × c).
- Distributive property
- a(b + c) = ab + ac; multiply the outside term across the sum.
- Solving a one-step equation
- Undo the operation: for x + 9 = 17, subtract 9 to get x = 8.
- Solving a two-step equation
- For 2x + 5 = 17, subtract 5 (2x = 12), then divide by 2 (x = 6).
- Variable
- A letter or symbol that stands for an unknown number, such as x in x + 9 = 17.
- Perimeter
- The distance around a 2-D shape; for a rectangle, 2 × (length + width), in linear units.
- Area of a rectangle
- Length × width, measured in square units.
- Area of a triangle
- ½ × base × height.
- Area vs. perimeter
- Area is the surface inside a shape (square units); perimeter is the distance around it (linear units).
- Right angle
- An angle measuring exactly 90°; a straight angle measures 180°.
- Acute vs. obtuse angle
- An acute angle is less than 90°; an obtuse angle is between 90° and 180°.
- Volume of a rectangular prism
- Length × width × height, in cubic units.
- Customary vs. metric units
- Customary: inches, feet, pounds. Metric: meters, liters, grams. Know both systems.
- Mean (average)
- The sum of the values divided by how many there are; for 4, 6, 8, 10 the mean is 7.
- Median
- The middle value of an ordered data set; it resists outliers.
- Mode
- The value that appears most often in a data set.
- Range
- The difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set.
- Probability
- Favorable outcomes ÷ total outcomes; a number from 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain).
- Bar graph vs. line plot
- A bar graph compares categories with bars; a line plot marks each data point with an X over a number line.
- Estimation
- Finding an approximate answer; 297 + 504 ≈ 300 + 500 = 800.
- Number line
- A line that represents numbers in order, used to compare, add, and subtract integers.
- Coordinate plane
- A grid formed by a horizontal x-axis and vertical y-axis, where points are named (x, y).
- Symmetry
- A figure has line symmetry if it can be folded so the two halves match exactly.
- Declaration of Independence (1776)
- The document, drafted mainly by Thomas Jefferson, that announced the thirteen colonies' separation from Great Britain.
- Thomas Jefferson
- The principal author of the Declaration of Independence and the third U.S. president.
- Articles of Confederation
- The first U.S. government framework; too weak to tax or regulate trade, so it was replaced by the Constitution.
- U.S. Constitution (1787)
- The document that established the structure of the federal government and remains the supreme law of the land.
- Preamble
- The introduction to the Constitution, beginning 'We the People,' that states the document's goals.
- Bill of Rights
- The first ten amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing fundamental freedoms.
- First Amendment
- Guarantees freedom of speech, religion, the press, assembly, and petition.
- Separation of powers
- Dividing government authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
- Checks and balances
- The system that lets each branch of government limit the powers of the others.
- Legislative branch
- Congress (the House and the Senate); it makes the laws.
- Executive branch
- The President and federal agencies; it enforces the laws.
- Judicial branch
- The Supreme Court and federal courts; it interprets the laws.
- Congress
- The bicameral legislature: the House of Representatives and the Senate.
- House of Representatives
- The chamber of Congress where a state's number of seats is based on its population.
- Senate
- The chamber of Congress where each state has exactly two members.
- Judicial review
- The Supreme Court's power to declare a law or action unconstitutional.
- Federalism
- The division of power between the national (federal) government and state governments.
- Bicameral
- A legislature made up of two chambers, like the U.S. Congress.
- Veto
- The President's power to reject a bill passed by Congress.
- Naturalization
- The legal process by which an immigrant becomes a U.S. citizen.
- Democracy
- A form of government in which power comes from the people, who vote and elect representatives.
- Three branches' jobs
- Legislative makes laws, executive enforces laws, judicial interprets laws.
- Industrial Revolution
- A shift to factory and machine production that began in Great Britain in the late 1700s.
- Civil War
- The 1861–1865 war between the Union (North) and the Confederacy (South), ending slavery in the U.S.
- American Revolution
- The war (1775–1783) in which the colonies won independence from Great Britain.
- Absolute location
- An exact position on Earth given by latitude and longitude coordinates.
- Relative location
- Where a place is in relation to other places, such as 'north of the river.'
- Latitude
- Imaginary east-west lines that measure distance north or south of the equator.
- Longitude
- Imaginary north-south lines that measure distance east or west of the prime meridian.
- Equator
- The 0° latitude line that circles the Earth halfway between the North and South Poles.
- Five themes of geography
- Location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, and region.
- Map legend (key)
- The part of a map that explains what its symbols and colors mean.
- Compass rose
- A map symbol showing the cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west.
- Continent
- One of Earth's seven large landmasses: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, South America.
- Scarcity
- The basic economic problem: limited resources cannot satisfy unlimited wants.
- Goods vs. services
- Goods are tangible products (apples, shoes); services are actions performed for others (a haircut).
- Producer (economics)
- A person or business that makes goods or provides services.
- Consumer (economics)
- A person who buys and uses goods and services.
- Supply and demand
- Supply is how much is available; demand is how much people want. Together they influence price.
- Opportunity cost
- What you give up when you choose one option over another.
- Barter
- Trading goods or services directly without using money.
- Rights vs. responsibilities
- Rights are freedoms citizens have (speech, voting); responsibilities are duties (obeying laws, serving on juries).
- Primary source
- A firsthand record from the time, such as a diary, letter, or original document.
- Secondary source
- An account created later that interprets primary sources, such as a textbook.
- Timeline
- A graphic that shows events in the order they happened along a line.
- Earth's layers
- From outside in: crust, mantle, liquid outer core, and solid inner core.
- Outer core
- The layer of liquid iron and nickel whose movement generates Earth's magnetic field.
- Crust
- The thin, solid, rocky outer shell of the Earth where we live.
- Mantle
- The thick layer of hot, slowly flowing rock beneath the crust.
- Cause of seasons
- The tilt of Earth's axis as it orbits the Sun — not its distance from the Sun.
- Moon phases
- We see different amounts of the Moon's sunlit half as it orbits Earth.
- Solar eclipse
- Occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, blocking the Sun.
- Lunar eclipse
- Occurs when Earth passes between the Sun and Moon, casting its shadow on the Moon.
- Rotation vs. revolution
- Rotation is Earth spinning on its axis (one day); revolution is Earth orbiting the Sun (one year).
- Water cycle
- The continuous movement of water: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection.
- Evaporation
- The change of liquid water into water vapor (a gas) as it heats.
- Condensation
- The change of water vapor in the air back into liquid water, forming clouds and dew.
- Precipitation
- Water that falls from clouds as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
- Igneous rock
- Rock formed from cooled and solidified magma or lava, such as granite or basalt.
- Sedimentary rock
- Rock formed from layers of compressed sediment, such as sandstone or limestone.
- Metamorphic rock
- Rock changed by heat and pressure, such as marble (from limestone) or slate.
- Law of superposition
- In undisturbed sedimentary rock layers, the oldest layer is at the bottom.
- Weathering
- The breaking down of rock into smaller pieces by wind, water, ice, and living things.
- Erosion
- The movement of weathered material from one place to another by wind, water, or ice.
- Stratosphere
- The atmospheric layer that contains the ozone layer, which absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays.
- Weather vs. climate
- Weather is short-term atmospheric conditions; climate is the long-term average pattern.
- Renewable resource
- A resource replaced naturally within a human lifetime: sunlight, wind, water, trees.
- Nonrenewable resource
- A resource in fixed supply that takes millions of years to form: coal, oil, natural gas, minerals.
- Producer (ecology)
- An organism, such as a green plant, that makes its own food through photosynthesis.
- Consumer (ecology)
- An organism that cannot make its own food and eats other organisms.
- Herbivore
- A consumer that eats only plants, such as a rabbit or a deer.
- Carnivore
- A consumer that eats only other animals, such as a lion or a hawk.
- Omnivore
- A consumer that eats both plants and animals, such as a bear or a human.
- Decomposer
- An organism, such as a fungus or bacterium, that breaks down dead matter and recycles nutrients.
- Photosynthesis
- The process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to make food (glucose) and release oxygen.
- Food chain
- A model showing how energy passes from a producer to a series of consumers.
- Food web
- A network of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem.
- Ecosystem
- A community of living organisms and their physical environment interacting together.
- Adaptation
- An inherited trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce in its environment.
- Life cycle
- The series of stages an organism passes through, such as egg → larva → pupa → adult for a butterfly.
- States of matter
- Solid (fixed shape and volume), liquid (fixed volume, takes shape of container), and gas (fills its container).
- Melting vs. freezing
- Melting changes a solid to a liquid (adds heat); freezing changes a liquid to a solid (removes heat).
- Physical vs. chemical change
- A physical change alters form but not the substance (ice melting); a chemical change makes a new substance (burning).
- Scientific method
- Ask a question, form a hypothesis, experiment, collect and analyze data, draw a conclusion.
- Hypothesis
- A testable, proposed explanation or prediction for an observation.
- Independent variable
- The single factor a scientist deliberately changes in an experiment.
- Dependent variable
- The factor that is measured in response to the change in the independent variable.
- Controlled experiment
- A fair test that changes only one variable while keeping all others the same.
- Graduated cylinder
- The best tool for measuring the volume of a liquid.
- Balance
- A tool used to measure the mass of an object.
- Praxis 5001
- The Elementary Education: Multiple Subjects test — a four-subtest battery ETS uses to license beginning elementary teachers.
- The four 5001 subtests
- Reading and Language Arts (5002), Mathematics (5003), Social Studies (5004), and Science (5005).
- 5001 question count
- 245 selected-response questions total: 80 reading, 50 math, 60 social studies, 55 science.
- 5001 total time
- 4 hours 35 minutes: 90 min reading, 65 min math, 60 min social studies, 60 min science.
- 5001 scoring
- Each subtest is scored separately on a 100–200 scale; passing scores are set by your state.
- Taking subtests separately
- You can take the four subtests (5002–5005) on different days or take the combined 5001 in one session.
- Math calculator
- An on-screen four-function calculator is provided for the Mathematics (5003) subtest.
- Test provider
- ETS administers the Praxis tests, including the 5001.
- Schwa
- The unstressed, neutral vowel sound (like the 'a' in 'about'); the most common vowel sound in English.
- Alliteration
- The repetition of the same beginning consonant sound in nearby words, as in 'Peter Piper picked.'
- Antagonist vs. protagonist
- The protagonist is the main character; the antagonist is the character or force that opposes them.
- Rounding to the nearest hundred
- Look at the tens digit: 5 or more rounds up, 4 or less rounds down; 297 rounds to 300.
- Numerator and denominator
- In a fraction, the numerator (top) counts the parts; the denominator (bottom) tells how many equal parts make a whole.
- Improper fraction vs. mixed number
- An improper fraction has a numerator larger than its denominator (7/4); it equals the mixed number 1 3/4.
- Cardinal directions
- North, south, east, and west — the four main directions shown on a compass rose.
- Branches' checks example
- The President can veto a law; Congress can override the veto; the courts can rule a law unconstitutional.
- Inherited vs. learned traits
- Inherited traits pass from parents (eye color); learned traits are acquired through experience (riding a bike).
- Force and motion
- A force is a push or a pull; an unbalanced force changes an object's motion (speed or direction).
