- Corroborate
- To confirm, verify, or support — as when a second witness corroborates an account.
- Clarity sub-test
- A PELLETB writing sub-test that pairs two sentences and asks which is most clearly and correctly written. POST says it is the one sub-test where studying markedly improves your score.
- Misplaced modifier
- A describing word or phrase placed so it seems to modify the wrong thing, blurring meaning. Fix it by moving it next to the word it really describes.
- Dangling modifier
- A modifying phrase whose intended subject is missing from the sentence, so it seems to describe the wrong noun. 'Running late, the bus was missed' wrongly says the bus was running late.
- Vague pronoun reference
- A pronoun (he, she, it, they) that could point to more than one person or thing, leaving the meaning unclear.
- Ambiguous reference
- Wording where a reader can't tell which noun a pronoun stands for — a common Clarity error the clearer option removes.
- Run-on sentence
- Two complete sentences joined with no punctuation or conjunction. Fix it with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction.
- Comma splice
- A type of run-on where two complete sentences are joined by only a comma. Replace the comma with a period or semicolon, or add a conjunction.
- Sentence fragment
- A group of words punctuated like a sentence but missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought.
- Coordinating conjunction
- A joining word (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so — FANBOYS) that links two independent clauses, usually after a comma.
- Independent clause
- A group of words with a subject and verb that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence.
- Dependent clause
- A group of words with a subject and verb that cannot stand alone because it doesn't express a complete thought (e.g., 'because she left').
- Parallel structure
- Using the same grammatical form for items in a series: 'typing, filing, and answering' — not 'typing, filing, and to answer.'
- Subject-verb agreement
- A verb must match its subject in number: a singular subject takes a singular verb ('the list includes').
- Modifier
- A word or phrase (adjective, adverb, or phrase) that describes or limits another word in the sentence.
- Antecedent
- The noun a pronoun refers back to. A clear sentence leaves no doubt which antecedent each pronoun has.
- Why is 'In rural areas, automobiles kill more deer than hunters' unclear?
- The phrasing implies automobiles also kill hunters. The clearer version is 'more deer are killed by automobiles than by hunters' — a misplaced-modification fix.
- Why is 'Mary agreed to have lunch with Sue the next time she was in town' unclear?
- 'She' could mean Mary or Sue — a vague pronoun reference. Clearer: 'The next time Mary was in town, she agreed to have lunch with Sue.'
- Is 'The report is ready to be printed the publicist can begin the campaign' correct?
- No — it's a run-on. Two complete sentences are fused with no punctuation. Separate them with a period or semicolon.
- Is 'In addition to acting as the receptionist for the organization.' a complete sentence?
- No — it's a sentence fragment. It has no subject performing an action and can't stand alone.
- Which is clearer: 'Beginning to run before stretching frequently is the cause...' or '...is frequently the cause...'?
- '...is frequently the cause...' — placing 'frequently' there avoids wrongly modifying 'stretching.' Misplaced-modifier fix.
- How do you fix a comma splice like 'She filed the report, she left'?
- Use a period or semicolon ('She filed the report; she left'), or add a conjunction ('She filed the report, and she left').
- What clarity error is in 'One that had a great deal of experience.'?
- It's a sentence fragment — a dependent phrase with no main subject-verb, broken off from the sentence it belongs to.
- How do you spot a misplaced modifier quickly?
- Check what each descriptive word or phrase sits next to. If it's beside a word it can't logically describe, it's misplaced.
- Pragmatic
- Practical; concerned with real results rather than theory. 'It was not a very pragmatic plan.'
- Sequester
- To isolate or set apart. 'The police sequestered the witness.'
- Blatant
- Done openly and unashamedly; obvious. 'She told a blatant lie.'
- Ignorant
- Unaware; lacking knowledge. 'He was ignorant of the proper procedures.'
- Conscientious
- Careful, diligent, and thorough. 'She was a conscientious worker.'
- Apparent
- Clearly visible or obvious; seeming to be true. 'It was not apparent who committed the crime.'
- Abduction
- The act of carrying someone off by force or deception; kidnapping.
- Analysis
- A detailed examination of the parts of something to understand it.
- Apprehend
- To arrest or seize; also, to understand.
- Credible
- Believable; worthy of belief. A credible witness is one a jury can trust.
- Deter
- To discourage or prevent someone from acting, usually through fear of consequences.
- Detain
- To hold or keep someone in custody, often briefly.
- Diligent
- Showing careful, persistent effort in work or duties.
- Discrepancy
- A difference or inconsistency between things that should match (e.g., two accounts that don't agree).
- Elicit
- To draw out or bring forth a response or information. 'Elicit a confession.'
- Evade
- To escape or avoid, especially by cleverness or deceit.
- Exonerate
- To clear someone of blame or a charge.
- Impartial
- Unbiased; treating all sides equally and fairly.
- Imminent
- About to happen; impending. 'An imminent threat.'
- Inadvertent
- Unintentional; happening by accident or without thinking.
- Incriminate
- To make someone appear guilty of a crime.
- Intoxicated
- Affected by alcohol or drugs to the point of impaired control.
- Lenient
- Merciful or tolerant; not strict in punishment.
- Negligent
- Failing to take proper care; careless in a way that causes harm.
- Notorious
- Famous for something bad; widely and unfavorably known.
- Obscure
- Not clear or easily understood; also, to hide or make unclear.
- Plausible
- Seeming reasonable or believable, even if not certain.
- Precedent
- An earlier event or decision used as a guide or example for later ones.
- Reluctant
- Unwilling or hesitant to do something.
- Reprimand
- A formal expression of disapproval; to scold officially.
- Subsequent
- Coming after something else in time; following.
- Tangible
- Able to be touched or clearly seen; concrete (e.g., tangible evidence).
- Vigilant
- Keenly watchful and alert to danger or problems.
- Volatile
- Likely to change suddenly; unstable or explosive.
- Adjacent
- Next to or adjoining something. 'The suspect fled into the adjacent building.'
- Coerce
- To force someone to act through pressure or threats.
- Concise
- Brief but complete; saying much in few words. Good for police reports.
- Deteriorate
- To become progressively worse.
- Fabricate
- To make up or invent (a story or evidence) in order to deceive.
- Hostile
- Unfriendly, antagonistic, or aggressive.
- Inquire
- To ask for information; to investigate.
- Legitimate
- Lawful, valid, or genuine.
- Meticulous
- Showing great attention to detail; very careful and precise.
- Obligatory
- Required by rule, law, or custom; mandatory.
- Prevalent
- Widespread; common in a particular area or time.
- Scrutinize
- To examine closely and critically.
- Substantiate
- To provide evidence that supports or proves a claim.
- Surveillance
- Close, continuous observation of a person or place, often by police.
- Testimony
- A formal statement, especially one given under oath in court.
- Root 'bio-'
- Means life. Examples: biology, biography, autobiography.
- Root 'mort-'
- Means death. Examples: mortal, mortician, mortuary.
- Root 'graph-'
- Means write or record. Examples: autograph, photograph, paragraph.
- Root 'ped-' (Latin)
- Means foot. Examples: pedestrian, pedal. (In Greek, 'ped-' can mean child, as in pediatric.)
- Root 'phob-'
- Means fear. Examples: phobia, claustrophobia.
- Root 'urb-'
- Means city. Examples: urban, suburb.
- Root 'dict-'
- Means say or speak. Examples: predict, dictate, verdict.
- Root 'port-'
- Means carry. Examples: transport, portable, deport.
- Root 'spect-'
- Means look or see. Examples: inspect, spectator, suspect.
- Root 'duct-'
- Means lead or pull. Examples: conduct, abduction, deduct.
- Prefix 'anti-'
- Means against or opposite. Examples: antidote, antibody.
- Prefix 'inter-'
- Means between or among. Examples: intervene, interstate.
- Prefix 'pre-'
- Means before. Examples: predict, precaution, preview.
- Prefix 'sub-'
- Means under or below. Examples: submerge, subordinate.
- Prefix 'trans-'
- Means across or through. Examples: transport, transfer.
- Prefix 'in-' / 'il-' / 'im-' / 'ir-'
- Means not. Examples: incorrect, illegal, impossible, irregular.
- Prefix 'mis-'
- Means wrong or badly. Examples: misunderstand, misplace.
- Prefix 'dis-'
- Means not or opposite of. Examples: disapprove, disagree.
- Suffix '-ance' / '-ence'
- Means a state or quality. Examples: vigilance, persistence.
- Suffix '-ness'
- Means a quality or state. Examples: alertness, fairness.
- Suffix '-ory'
- Often means a place for, or relating to. Examples: laboratory, mandatory.
- Spelling rule: prefixes
- Adding a prefix does not change the base word's spelling: dis + approve = disapprove; mis + spell = misspell.
- Spelling rule: double the consonant
- Double a final single consonant after a single vowel before -ing/-ed/-er: wrap to wrapping, occur to occurring.
- Spelling rule: drop silent e
- Drop a silent final e before a suffix starting with a vowel: hide to hiding, write to writing, make to making.
- Spelling rule: keep silent e
- Keep a silent final e before a suffix starting with a consonant: care to careful, hope to hopeless.
- Spelling rule: y to i
- Change final y after a consonant to i before -es/-ed: cry to cries/cried; county to counties. Keep y before -ing: crying.
- Spelling rule: plurals -es
- Add -es after s, x, z, ch, or sh: box to boxes, church to churches, dish to dishes.
- Spelling rule: consonant + o plurals
- Words ending in consonant + o usually add -es: tomato to tomatoes, hero to heroes, potato to potatoes.
- Spelling rule: vowel + o plurals
- Words ending in vowel + o add -s: stereo to stereos, radio to radios, video to videos.
- Spelling rule: i before e
- I before e, except after c, or when sounding like 'ay': believe, niece — but receive, deceive; neighbor, weigh.
- Correct spelling: 'receive'
- Receive — i comes after e here because it follows c ('except after c').
- Correct spelling: 'separate'
- Separate — note the 'a' in the middle ('there's a rat in separate'), not 'seperate.'
- Correct spelling: 'definitely'
- Definitely — built from 'finite'; there is no 'a' (not 'definately').
- Correct spelling: 'occurrence'
- Occurrence — double c, double r, ends in -ence.
- Correct spelling: 'embarrass'
- Embarrass — double r and double s.
- Correct spelling: 'necessary'
- Necessary — one c, two s's.
- Correct spelling: 'accommodate'
- Accommodate — double c and double m.
- Correct spelling: 'lieutenant'
- Lieutenant — 'lieu' + 'tenant.'
- Correct spelling: 'sergeant'
- Sergeant — 'ser' + 'geant.'
- Correct spelling: 'surveillance'
- Surveillance — 'sur' + 'veill' + 'ance'; double l.
- Correct spelling: 'apparent'
- Apparent — double p, ends in -ent.
- Correct spelling: 'conscientious'
- Conscientious — 'con' + 'scien' + 'tious.'
- Correct spelling: 'maintenance'
- Maintenance — 'mainten' + 'ance' (not 'maintainance').
- Correct spelling: 'privilege'
- Privilege — no 'd'; ends in -lege (not 'priviledge').
- Correct spelling: 'committed'
- Committed — double m, double t (double the consonant before -ed).
- Correct spelling: 'beginning'
- Beginning — double n (double the consonant before -ing).
- Correct spelling: 'judgment'
- Judgment — the common U.S. spelling drops the e (no 'judgement').
- Correct spelling: 'acknowledgment'
- Acknowledgment — U.S. spelling drops the e before -ment.
- Correct spelling: 'foreign'
- Foreign — an exception to 'i before e' ('ei' not 'ie').
- Correct spelling: 'misspell'
- Misspell — prefix 'mis-' + 'spell' keeps both s's; the prefix doesn't change the base.
- Correct spelling: 'rhythm'
- Rhythm — no vowels except y; 'rhy' + 'thm.'
- Its vs. it's
- 'Its' shows possession ('its bumper'); 'it's' is the contraction for 'it is' or 'it has.'
- Their vs. there vs. they're
- 'Their' = possessive; 'there' = a place; 'they're' = 'they are.'
- Whether vs. weather
- 'Whether' introduces a choice; 'weather' refers to climate conditions.
- Affect vs. effect
- 'Affect' is usually a verb (to influence); 'effect' is usually a noun (a result).
- Whose vs. who's
- 'Whose' shows possession; 'who's' is the contraction for 'who is' or 'who has.'
- To vs. too vs. two
- 'To' = direction/infinitive; 'too' = also or excessively; 'two' = the number 2.
- Less vs. fewer
- Use 'less' for uncountable amounts (less time); 'fewer' for countable items (fewer reports).
- Ensure vs. insure
- 'Ensure' = to make certain; 'insure' = to provide insurance.
- Principal vs. principle
- 'Principal' = main, or a person in charge; 'principle' = a rule or belief.
- Lay vs. lie
- 'Lay' takes a direct object (lay the file down); 'lie' does not (lie down). Past tense: laid / lay.
- Accept vs. except
- 'Accept' = to receive; 'except' = excluding.
- Than vs. then
- 'Than' makes a comparison; 'then' refers to time or sequence.
- Your vs. you're
- 'Your' shows possession; 'you're' is the contraction for 'you are.'
- Stationary vs. stationery
- 'Stationary' = not moving; 'stationery' = writing paper.
- Reading Comprehension sub-test
- The PELLETB reading sub-test (20-24 items). It presents passages and asks multiple-choice questions answerable solely from the passage.
- Main idea
- The central point a passage is built around — what it is mostly about. Choose an answer broad enough to cover the whole passage.
- Supporting detail
- A specific fact, example, or reason in a passage that backs up the main idea. Find the exact sentence; don't rely on memory.
- Inference
- A conclusion a passage implies but doesn't state outright. On the PELLETB, every inference must be supported by the passage.
- Literal comprehension
- Understanding what a passage states directly — facts you can point to in the text.
- Inferential comprehension
- Reading between the lines to draw a reasonable conclusion the passage implies but doesn't say.
- Context clue
- A hint in the surrounding sentence — a definition, example, or contrast — that reveals an unfamiliar word's meaning.
- Author's purpose
- The reason an author wrote a passage: to inform, persuade, explain, or describe.
- Tone
- The author's attitude toward the subject, shown through word choice (neutral, critical, supportive).
- Topic sentence
- The sentence (often first) that states the main idea of a paragraph.
- Summarize
- To restate the key points of a passage briefly in your own words.
- Paraphrase
- To restate a specific idea from the passage in different words while keeping the meaning.
- Fact vs. opinion
- A fact can be verified; an opinion expresses a belief or judgment. PELLETB answers rely on facts in the passage.
- Strategy: read the question first
- POST's own tip: read the question and answer options before the passage, then read with those points in mind.
- Strategy: answer only from the passage
- Never use personal knowledge or opinion; each item is scored solely on what the passage states.
- Strategy: re-read the question
- Most wrong answers come from misreading the question — watch for 'EXCEPT,' 'best,' and 'mainly.'
- Strategy: eliminate then commit
- Rule out choices the passage doesn't support, pick the best remaining one, and move on under the shared clock.
- 'EXCEPT' question
- Asks which option is NOT supported by the passage. The correct answer is the odd one out — read carefully.
- 'Best title' question
- Asks for the title that captures the whole passage — essentially a main-idea question in disguise.
- Skimming
- Reading quickly to find specific information or get the gist; useful for locating a detail the question asks about.
- PELLETB
- The POST Entry-Level Law Enforcement Test Battery — California's reading/writing aptitude test for peace-officer applicants.
- POST
- The California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training, which owns and distributes the PELLETB.
- PELLETB components
- Two: Writing Ability (Clarity, Vocabulary, Spelling) and Reading Ability (Reading Comprehension).
- PELLETB sub-tests (current)
- Four: Clarity, Vocabulary, Spelling, and Reading Comprehension. CLOZE was removed in 2025.
- T-score
- A standardized PELLETB score on a bell curve with an average of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 — not a percentage.
- PELLETB cut score
- POST recommends 42 or above. Each agency sets its own passing score, and many require higher.
- PELLETB time limit
- Candidates get 1 hour and 45 minutes (105 minutes) of testing time; total administration is about 2 hours 15 minutes.
- CLOZE removal
- POST removed the CLOZE sub-test effective January 1, 2025, after research found it redundant with the other sub-tests.
- PELLETB retake rule
- You may retake the test after 30 days, becoming eligible on the 31st day — even if you test with a different agency.
- Aptitude test
- A test of skills built over years (reading and writing), not memorized facts. POST notes Clarity is the most improvable sub-test.
- Acquit
- To free someone from a criminal charge by a verdict of not guilty.
- Adamant
- Refusing to change one's mind; unyielding.
- Alibi
- A claim or evidence that one was elsewhere when an act took place.
- Alleviate
- To make a problem or pain less severe; to ease.
- Ambiguous
- Open to more than one interpretation; unclear in meaning.
- Apprehensive
- Anxious or fearful that something bad will happen.
- Arbitrary
- Based on random choice or personal whim rather than reason.
- Articulate
- Able to express ideas clearly; (verb) to express clearly.
- Brevity
- The quality of being brief; shortness in speech or writing.
- Candid
- Honest, frank, and direct.
- Cite
- To quote or refer to as evidence or authority.
- Clandestine
- Kept secret, especially because it is illicit.
- Cognizant
- Aware of something; having knowledge of it.
- Compel
- To force or strongly urge someone to do something.
- Concur
- To agree with someone or something.
- Condone
- To accept or allow behavior that is wrong.
- Confiscate
- To take or seize property, often by authority.
- Culpable
- Deserving blame; responsible for a fault or wrong.
- Demeanor
- A person's outward behavior or manner.
- Deviate
- To depart from an established course or standard.
- Diminish
- To make or become smaller or less.
- Dispute
- To argue about or question the truth of something.
- Eloquent
- Fluent and persuasive in speaking or writing.
- Erratic
- Irregular or unpredictable in behavior or movement.
- Explicit
- Stated clearly and in detail, leaving no room for doubt.
- Feasible
- Possible to do easily or conveniently; practicable.
- Flagrant
- Conspicuously bad or offensive; blatant.
- Furtive
- Done secretly to avoid being noticed; sly.
- Hinder
- To delay, obstruct, or get in the way of something.
- Indict
- To formally charge someone with a crime.
- Infraction
- A breaking of a rule or law; a minor violation.
- Innocuous
- Harmless; not likely to cause offense or injury.
- Intercede
- To intervene on behalf of another; to mediate.
- Jurisdiction
- The official authority to enforce laws or make legal decisions in an area.
- Liable
- Legally responsible; likely to do or be something.
- Mitigate
- To make less severe or serious; to lessen.
- Obstinate
- Stubbornly refusing to change one's opinion or course.
- Pertinent
- Relevant or applicable to the matter at hand.
- Proximity
- Nearness in space or time.
- Reprehensible
- Deserving strong condemnation; blameworthy.
- Sporadic
- Occurring at irregular intervals; scattered.
- Subpoena
- A legal order requiring someone to appear in court or produce evidence.
- Susceptible
- Likely to be affected by or vulnerable to something.
- Ubiquitous
- Present everywhere at once; very common.
- Vindicate
- To clear of blame or suspicion; to prove right.
- Wary
- Cautious; on guard against danger or deception.
- Adept
- Highly skilled or proficient at something.
- Belligerent
- Hostile and aggressive; eager to fight.
- Comply
- To act in accordance with a rule, order, or request.
- Discern
- To recognize or distinguish, often with effort.
- Correct spelling: 'accidentally'
- Accidentally — built from 'accidental' + -ly; keep the -al.
- Correct spelling: 'acquaintance'
- Acquaintance — 'acquaint' + -ance; note the c before q.
- Correct spelling: 'argument'
- Argument — drops the e from 'argue' before -ment.
- Correct spelling: 'calendar'
- Calendar — ends in -ar, not -er.
- Correct spelling: 'cemetery'
- Cemetery — three e's, no a.
- Correct spelling: 'changeable'
- Changeable — keeps the e after g to keep the soft sound.
- Correct spelling: 'conscience'
- Conscience — 'con' + 'science.'
- Correct spelling: 'discipline'
- Discipline — 'disci' + 'pline'; one s.
- Correct spelling: 'existence'
- Existence — ends in -ence, not -ance.
- Correct spelling: 'guarantee'
- Guarantee — 'guar' + 'antee.'
- Correct spelling: 'harass'
- Harass — one r, two s's.
- Correct spelling: 'independent'
- Independent — ends in -ent, not -ant.
- Correct spelling: 'liaison'
- Liaison — two i's: 'li' + 'ai' + 'son.'
- Correct spelling: 'mischievous'
- Mischievous — no extra i before -ous (not 'mischievious').
- Correct spelling: 'noticeable'
- Noticeable — keeps the e after c to keep the soft sound.
- Correct spelling: 'occasion'
- Occasion — double c, one s.
- Correct spelling: 'perseverance'
- Perseverance — ends in -ance; no double r.
- Correct spelling: 'possession'
- Possession — double s twice.
- Correct spelling: 'questionnaire'
- Questionnaire — double n, ends in -aire.
- Correct spelling: 'recommend'
- Recommend — one c, double m.
- Correct spelling: 'relevant'
- Relevant — ends in -ant; note 'relev,' not 'revel.'
- Correct spelling: 'restaurant'
- Restaurant — 'restau' + 'rant.'
- Correct spelling: 'vacuum'
- Vacuum — one c, double u.
- Correct spelling: 'weird'
- Weird — an exception to 'i before e' ('ei').
- Correct spelling: 'category'
- Category — 'cate' + 'gory,' not 'catagory.'
- Comma in a series
- Use commas to separate three or more items: 'He typed, filed, and answered calls.'
- Comma before a conjunction
- Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses: 'She filed it, and he left.'
- Semicolon use
- A semicolon joins two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction: 'He left; she stayed.'
- Colon use
- A colon introduces a list or explanation after a complete sentence: 'Bring three things: a pen, a form, and ID.'
- Apostrophe for possession
- Add 's for singular ('the officer's report') and just an apostrophe for plural possessives ('the suspects' alibis').
- Modifier placement
- Place a modifier next to the word it describes: 'She nearly drove for six hours' vs. 'She drove for nearly six hours.'
- Pronoun-antecedent agreement
- A pronoun must match its antecedent in number: 'Each officer filed his or her report,' not 'their report.'
- Active vs. passive voice
- Active: the subject acts ('The officer wrote the report'). Passive: the subject receives the action ('The report was written').
- Restrictive clause ('that')
- Use 'that' (no commas) for information essential to meaning: 'The car that was stolen is red.'
- Nonrestrictive clause ('which')
- Use 'which' with commas for nonessential information: 'The car, which was red, was stolen.'
- Subordinate clause
- A clause beginning with a word like 'because' or 'although' that can't stand alone and supports the main clause.
- Double negative
- Avoid two negatives in one clause ('didn't see nothing'); use one ('didn't see anything').
- Cause and effect
- A relationship where one event leads to another. Signal words: because, therefore, as a result, so.
- Compare and contrast
- Showing how things are alike and different. Signal words: similarly, however, unlike, whereas.
- Sequence
- The order in which events happen. Signal words: first, next, then, finally.
- Conclusion
- A judgment reached by reasoning from the passage's stated facts.
- Implied main idea
- A central point a passage suggests without stating directly; you infer it from the details.
- Denotation vs. connotation
- Denotation is a word's literal meaning; connotation is the feeling or association it carries.
- Bias
- A one-sided slant in a passage. Identify it from loaded word choice and omitted viewpoints.
- Persuasive text
- Writing meant to convince the reader of a position, often using opinion and emotional appeals.
- Informative text
- Writing meant to explain or inform with facts, without trying to persuade.
- Supporting evidence
- Facts, examples, or reasons a passage gives to back up a claim.
- Detail question tactic
- Scan the passage for the keyword in the question, then read that sentence carefully before choosing.
- Inference tactic
- Pick the answer the passage best supports — not the most dramatic option or one you know from outside.
