- Slope
- Rise over run: (y₂ − y₁)/(x₂ − x₁); the m in y = mx + b.
- Mean
- The average — add all values and divide by how many there are.
- Median
- The middle value of a data set arranged in order.
- Mode
- The value that appears most often in a data set.
- Range
- The highest value minus the lowest value in a data set.
- y-intercept
- Where a line crosses the y-axis (x = 0); the b in y = mx + b.
- Probability
- Favorable outcomes ÷ total outcomes; a value from 0 to 1.
- Order of operations (PEMDAS)
- Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply/Divide (left to right), Add/Subtract (left to right).
- Percent to decimal
- Divide by 100 — move the decimal two places left. 25% = 0.25.
- Percent of a number
- Convert the percent to a decimal and multiply: 20% of 80 = 0.20 × 80 = 16.
- Percent change
- (new − old) ÷ old × 100.
- Ratio
- A comparison of two quantities by division, e.g. 3 to 4 or 3:4.
- Proportion
- A statement that two ratios are equal; solve by cross-multiplying.
- Cross-multiplication
- To solve a/b = c/d, set a×d = b×c.
- Greatest common factor (GCF)
- The largest number that divides two or more numbers evenly.
- Least common multiple (LCM)
- The smallest number that two or more numbers all divide into.
- Prime number
- A whole number greater than 1 divisible only by 1 and itself.
- Integer
- A whole number and its negatives, including zero (…−2, −1, 0, 1, 2…).
- Absolute value
- A number's distance from zero, always non-negative: |−5| = 5.
- Exponent rule (product)
- When multiplying like bases, add exponents: xᵃ · xᵇ = xᵃ⁺ᵇ.
- Exponent rule (quotient)
- When dividing like bases, subtract exponents: xᵃ ÷ xᵇ = xᵃ⁻ᵇ.
- Square root
- A value that, multiplied by itself, gives the number: √25 = 5.
- Scientific notation
- A number written as a × 10ⁿ, with 1 ≤ a < 10 (e.g. 3.2 × 10⁴).
- Linear equation
- An equation graphing to a straight line; variables to the first power (y = 2x + 1).
- Slope-intercept form
- y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.
- Solving a linear equation
- Use inverse operations to isolate the variable, doing the same to both sides.
- Inequality sign flip
- Flip the inequality sign when you multiply or divide by a negative number.
- Function
- A relation where each input has exactly one output; f(x) is the output for x.
- Quadratic equation
- An equation of the form ax² + bx + c = 0; solve by factoring or the quadratic formula.
- Quadratic formula
- x = (−b ± √(b² − 4ac)) ÷ (2a).
- Coordinate plane
- A grid formed by the x-axis and y-axis; points are written (x, y).
- x-axis vs y-axis
- The x-axis is horizontal; the y-axis is vertical. They meet at the origin (0, 0).
- Perimeter
- The distance around a 2-D shape — add the lengths of all sides.
- Area of a rectangle
- Area = length × width.
- Area of a triangle
- Area = ½ × base × height (height is the perpendicular distance).
- Area of a circle
- Area = πr², where r is the radius.
- Circumference
- The distance around a circle: C = 2πr (or πd).
- Volume of a box
- Volume = length × width × height.
- Volume of a cylinder
- Volume = πr²h.
- Pythagorean theorem
- For a right triangle, a² + b² = c², where c is the hypotenuse.
- Radius vs diameter
- The radius is half the diameter; the diameter spans the full circle through the center.
- Sum of triangle angles
- The interior angles of any triangle add to 180°.
- Complementary angles
- Two angles that add to 90°.
- Supplementary angles
- Two angles that add to 180°.
- Mean (worked)
- For 70, 80, 90: (70 + 80 + 90) ÷ 3 = 80.
- Simple interest
- I = principal × rate × time (I = Prt).
- Outlier
- A data value far from the others; it affects the mean more than the median.
- Reading a bar graph
- Compare bar heights against the labeled axis to read each value.
- Independent events
- Events whose outcomes don't affect each other; multiply their probabilities.
- Converting fractions to percent
- Divide the fraction, then multiply by 100: ¾ = 0.75 = 75%.
- Unit conversion
- Multiply by a conversion factor so unwanted units cancel (use the reference sheet).
- Estimation
- Round numbers to check whether a calculated answer is reasonable.
- Subject-verb agreement
- A singular subject takes a singular verb; a plural subject takes a plural verb.
- Dangling modifier
- A modifying phrase that doesn't logically attach to the word it should describe.
- Misplaced modifier
- A modifier positioned so it seems to describe the wrong word in the sentence.
- Parallel structure
- Items in a list, pair, or comparison share the same grammatical form.
- Antecedent
- The noun a pronoun refers back to; it must agree in number and be clear.
- Pronoun-antecedent agreement
- A pronoun must match its antecedent in number and gender.
- Run-on sentence
- Two independent clauses joined with no proper punctuation or conjunction.
- Comma splice
- Two independent clauses joined only by a comma — an error; use a period, semicolon, or conjunction.
- Sentence fragment
- An incomplete sentence missing a subject, verb, or complete thought.
- Independent clause
- A group of words with a subject and verb that can stand alone as a sentence.
- Dependent clause
- A clause with a subject and verb that cannot stand alone (begins with a subordinator).
- Coordinating conjunction
- Joins equal grammatical elements: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS).
- Subordinating conjunction
- Begins a dependent clause (because, although, since, while, when).
- Verb tense consistency
- Keep verb tense the same unless the time frame genuinely changes.
- Active vs passive voice
- Active: the subject does the action. Passive: the subject receives it. Prefer active.
- Apostrophe for possession
- Add 's to a singular noun (dog's) or just ' to a plural ending in s (dogs').
- Apostrophe vs plural
- Apostrophes show possession or contraction — never form a simple plural.
- its vs it's
- 'Its' is possessive; 'it's' is the contraction for 'it is.'
- their / there / they're
- 'Their' = possessive; 'there' = place; 'they're' = they are.
- your vs you're
- 'Your' is possessive; 'you're' is the contraction for 'you are.'
- than vs then
- 'Than' compares; 'then' refers to time or sequence.
- affect vs effect
- 'Affect' is usually a verb (to influence); 'effect' is usually a noun (a result).
- who vs whom
- 'Who' is a subject; 'whom' is an object (use whom after a preposition).
- Comma after introductory phrase
- Put a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or dependent clause.
- Comma in a series
- Separate three or more items with commas (often including the serial/Oxford comma).
- Semicolon use
- Joins two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction.
- Colon use
- Introduces a list, explanation, or quotation after an independent clause.
- Capitalization rule
- Capitalize proper nouns, the first word of a sentence, and 'I.'
- Diction
- Word choice — selecting precise, appropriate words for the audience and purpose.
- Connotation
- A word's emotional or implied meaning, beyond its literal definition.
- Denotation
- A word's literal dictionary definition.
- Context clues
- Surrounding words and sentences that reveal an unfamiliar word's meaning.
- Tone (writing)
- The author's attitude toward the subject, shown through word choice.
- Redundancy
- Needless repetition of an idea; concise writing removes it.
- Wordiness
- Using more words than necessary; trim filler for clear, standard English.
- Standard English conventions
- Grammar, usage, mechanics, and spelling rules — about 50% of the ELS subtest.
- Comparative vs superlative
- Comparative compares two (taller); superlative compares three or more (tallest).
- Double negative
- Two negatives in one clause (didn't see nothing) — nonstandard; use one negative.
- Pronoun case
- Use subject pronouns (I, he, she) for subjects and object pronouns (me, him, her) for objects.
- Main idea
- The central point a passage conveys — what the whole text is mostly about.
- Supporting detail
- A fact, example, statistic, or reason that develops the main idea.
- Topic sentence
- The sentence (often first) that states a paragraph's main idea.
- Theme
- The underlying message or insight a text conveys about life or human nature.
- Summary
- A brief restatement of a text's main idea and key supporting points.
- Inference
- A logical conclusion drawn from textual evidence plus reasoning — implied, not stated.
- Author's purpose
- The reason a text was written — to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain.
- Point of view
- The author's perspective or attitude toward the subject.
- Fact vs opinion
- A fact can be verified; an opinion expresses a belief or judgment.
- Text structure
- How a passage is organized — cause/effect, compare/contrast, sequence, problem/solution.
- Cause and effect
- A structure linking an event (cause) to its result (effect).
- Compare and contrast
- A structure showing similarities and differences between ideas.
- Sequence
- A structure presenting events or steps in order.
- Problem and solution
- A structure presenting an issue and a proposed resolution.
- Context clues (reading)
- Hints in surrounding text that help define an unfamiliar word.
- Drawing conclusions
- Combining text details to reach a reasonable overall judgment.
- Making predictions
- Using text evidence to anticipate what will happen next.
- Evaluating an argument
- Judging whether an author's evidence is relevant and sufficient for the claim.
- Bias
- A one-sided slant in a text shown by selective or loaded evidence.
- Assumption
- An unstated belief a writer takes for granted in an argument.
- Relevance of evidence
- Whether a detail actually supports or weakens the claim it's attached to.
- Text features
- Headings, captions, graphs, and bold terms that organize and signal information.
- Denotation vs connotation (reading)
- Literal meaning vs the emotional shade a word carries in context.
- Figurative language
- Language that means more than its literal words (metaphor, simile, personification).
- Simile
- A comparison using 'like' or 'as' (brave as a lion).
- Metaphor
- A direct comparison stating one thing is another (time is money).
- Explicit vs implicit
- Explicit = stated directly in the text; implicit = implied, must be inferred.
- Author's tone (reading)
- The author's attitude conveyed through word choice (e.g., critical, hopeful).
- Persuasive text
- A text whose purpose is to convince; often has a strong tone and one-sided evidence.
- Informational text
- A text whose purpose is to inform; typically neutral and fact-based.
- Generalization
- A broad statement; check whether the passage's evidence truly supports it.
- Skimming vs scanning
- Skim for the gist; scan to locate a specific detail quickly.
- FTCE Essay (825)
- A 50-minute timed essay scored by two raters; pass with a combined 6 of 8 points.
- Thesis statement
- A clear sentence stating the essay's main position or argument.
- Essay introduction
- Opens the essay and states the thesis so the reader knows your position.
- Body paragraph
- Develops one supporting point with reasons or specific examples.
- Topic sentence (essay)
- States the main point of a body paragraph and links it to the thesis.
- Transitions
- Words and phrases that connect ideas and guide the reader (however, therefore, next).
- Conclusion (essay)
- Restates the thesis and leaves the reader with a final, focused thought.
- Five-paragraph structure
- Intro, three developed body paragraphs, and a conclusion — reliable on a timed essay.
- Holistic scoring
- Raters judge the essay as a whole (focus, organization, support, conventions), not point-by-point.
- Essay development
- Backing each point with specific reasons and examples, not vague generalities.
- Coherence
- Ideas connect logically and flow smoothly from sentence to sentence.
- Unity (essay)
- Every sentence and paragraph supports the single controlling thesis.
- Proofreading
- Checking grammar, spelling, and clarity in the final minutes before submitting.
- Planning the essay
- Spend the first few minutes outlining a thesis plus 2–3 supported points.
- Audience awareness
- Writing with appropriate tone and formality for the intended reader.
- Professional Education Test (083)
- 80 multiple-choice pedagogy questions; 2.5 hours; passing scaled score 200.
- Backward design
- Plan from desired outcomes → assessment evidence → learning activities.
- Learning objective
- A measurable statement of what students will know or do by a lesson's end.
- Bloom's taxonomy
- A hierarchy of thinking: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create.
- Higher-order thinking
- Analysis, evaluation, and creation — beyond simple recall.
- Standards alignment
- Matching instruction and assessment to state standards (Florida B.E.S.T.).
- Scaffolding
- Temporary teacher support faded over time as students gain independence.
- Gradual release of responsibility
- 'I do, we do, you do' — shifting work from teacher to student.
- Zone of proximal development
- Vygotsky's gap between what a learner can do alone vs with guidance.
- Differentiated instruction
- Tailoring content, process, product, or environment to learner needs.
- Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
- Building flexible options for engagement, representation, and expression into instruction.
- Direct instruction
- Teacher-led, explicit teaching of skills, often with modeling and guided practice.
- Inquiry-based learning
- Students investigate questions and construct understanding actively.
- Cooperative learning
- Structured small-group work where students depend on one another to learn.
- Constructivism
- The view that learners build new knowledge on prior experience.
- Modeling
- Demonstrating a skill or thinking process for students to imitate.
- Questioning strategies
- Mixing lower- and higher-order questions to deepen student thinking.
- Wait time
- The pause after a question that lets students think before answering.
- Activating prior knowledge
- Connecting new content to what students already know.
- Anticipatory set
- An opening hook that focuses students and previews the lesson.
- Closure
- An end-of-lesson activity that helps students summarize what they learned.
- Formative assessment
- Ongoing, low-stakes checks during instruction used to adjust teaching.
- Summative assessment
- An end-of-unit evaluative assessment of mastery against standards.
- Assessment FOR vs OF learning
- Formative = for learning (adjust); summative = of learning (measure).
- Diagnostic assessment
- A pre-assessment that identifies students' prior knowledge and gaps.
- Validity
- An assessment measures what it claims to measure.
- Reliability
- An assessment produces consistent results across administrations.
- Rubric
- A scoring tool listing criteria and performance levels for consistent grading.
- Norm-referenced test
- Compares a student's score to a comparison group (a percentile rank).
- Criterion-referenced test
- Measures a student against a fixed standard, not against peers.
- Data-driven instruction
- Using assessment results to reteach, regroup, or enrich.
- Feedback
- Specific, timely information that helps a student improve.
- Classroom management
- Routines, expectations, and supports that create an orderly learning environment.
- Positive behavior support
- Teaching and reinforcing expected behavior rather than only punishing misbehavior.
- Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
- Intrinsic comes from within the learner; extrinsic comes from outside rewards.
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs
- Basic needs (safety, belonging) must be met before higher learning needs.
- Culturally responsive teaching
- Instruction that values and builds on students' cultural backgrounds.
- Equity in the classroom
- Giving each student what they need to access the same high standards.
- Comprehensible input
- Making content understandable to English learners with visuals and simplified language.
- English Language Learner (ELL)
- A student developing English proficiency whose first language isn't English.
- ESOL strategies
- Scaffolds for English learners: visuals, word banks, sentence frames, peer support.
- WIDA proficiency levels
- Levels describing an English learner's language development, used to scaffold support.
- Academic vocabulary
- Subject-specific words students need to access content; teach explicitly.
- Disciplinary literacy
- Reading and writing strategies specific to each subject, applied across the curriculum.
- Content-area reading
- Helping students read and comprehend texts within a specific subject.
- Graphic organizer
- A visual tool (web, chart, Venn diagram) that structures thinking and information.
- Principles of Professional Conduct
- Florida's binding educator ethics rules (Rule 6A-10.081).
- Obligation to the student
- Educators must protect students' physical and mental health and safety.
- Mandatory reporting
- Teachers must report suspected child abuse or neglect to authorities.
- Confidentiality (FERPA)
- Student records and personal information must be kept private.
- Professional ethics
- Honesty, integrity, and fairness toward students, families, and colleagues.
- Reflective practice
- Analyzing one's own teaching to improve it over time.
- Professional learning community (PLC)
- A team of educators collaborating regularly to improve student learning.
- Professional development
- Ongoing training that builds a teacher's knowledge and skills.
- IEP (Individualized Education Program)
- A legal plan of services and goals for a student with a disability.
- 504 plan
- Accommodations ensuring a student with a disability can access learning.
- Accommodation vs modification
- Accommodation changes how a student learns; modification changes what they learn.
- Inclusion
- Educating students with disabilities alongside peers in the general classroom.
- Response to Intervention (RTI)/MTSS
- A tiered system of increasing support based on student data.
- Bloom's verbs
- Action verbs (define, apply, analyze, evaluate, create) used to write objectives.
- Lesson pacing
- Adjusting the speed of instruction to keep students engaged and learning.
- Engagement
- The degree of attention and active participation students bring to learning.
- Technology integration
- Using digital tools purposefully to support learning objectives.
- Home-school communication
- Keeping families informed and involved as partners in learning.
- Growth mindset
- The belief that ability can develop through effort and feedback.
- Bias-free assessment
- Designing assessments that are fair and free of cultural or linguistic bias.
- Distributive property
- a(b + c) = ab + ac.
- Commutative property
- Order doesn't change the result for addition or multiplication: a + b = b + a.
- Associative property
- Grouping doesn't change the result: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
- Negative exponent
- x⁻ⁿ = 1 ÷ xⁿ.
- Converting decimal to percent
- Multiply by 100 — move the decimal two places right. 0.4 = 40%.
- Mixed number to improper fraction
- Multiply whole × denominator, add numerator, keep denominator: 2½ = 5/2.
- Rate problem
- Distance = rate × time (d = rt); solve for the unknown.
- Mean from a frequency table
- Multiply each value by its frequency, sum, then divide by total frequency.
- Surface area
- The total area of all faces of a 3-D solid (use the reference sheet).
- Slope of a horizontal line
- Zero — there is no rise.
- Slope of a vertical line
- Undefined — there is no run.
- Probability of complement
- P(not A) = 1 − P(A).
- Subordinate clause punctuation
- A leading dependent clause is followed by a comma; a trailing one usually isn't.
- Parallelism with correlatives
- Match forms after not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor.
- Vague pronoun reference
- A pronoun whose antecedent is unclear — rewrite to name the noun.
- Faulty comparison
- Compare like things: "her grades are higher than her sister's," not "than her sister."
- Adjective vs adverb
- Adjectives modify nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
- good vs well
- "Good" is an adjective; "well" is usually an adverb (she sings well).
- fewer vs less
- "Fewer" for countable items; "less" for uncountable amounts.
- Quotation punctuation
- In American English, commas and periods go inside the closing quotation mark.
- Connotative meaning in context
- Choose the word sense that fits the passage's tone and situation.
- Author's argument
- The central claim plus the reasons and evidence offered to support it.
- Counterargument
- An opposing view a writer addresses to strengthen their own argument.
- Primary vs secondary source
- Primary = firsthand/original; secondary = analysis or commentary on it.
- Inference vs prediction
- An inference explains the present text; a prediction anticipates what comes next.
- Mood (reading)
- The feeling a text creates in the reader, shaped by word choice and detail.
- Hook (essay)
- An opening sentence that grabs the reader's attention before the thesis.
- Evidence in an essay
- Specific examples, facts, or reasons that develop each body point.
- Counterclaim (essay)
- Briefly acknowledging the opposing view, then refuting it.
- Anticipatory guide
- A pre-reading tool that surfaces beliefs and primes students for a text.
- Think-pair-share
- Students think alone, discuss with a partner, then share with the class.
- Exit ticket
- A quick end-of-lesson formative check of what students learned.
- Bloom's: application
- Using learned knowledge in a new situation (apply, solve, demonstrate).
- SMART objective
- A goal that is Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound.
- Scaffolded writing
- Supports like sentence frames and graphic organizers that build writing skill.
- Total physical response (TPR)
- An ELL strategy linking language to physical movement.
- Realia
- Real objects used to make content concrete for English learners.
- Differentiating by readiness
- Adjusting task difficulty to match where each student is.
- Bias in instruction
- Unfair assumptions that disadvantage some students; aim for equitable practice.
- Standardized test
- A test administered and scored uniformly to allow comparison.
- Peer assessment
- Students evaluate each other's work against criteria to build understanding.
- Self-assessment
- Students reflect on and judge their own learning against goals.
