Your FREE CompTIA ITF+ Flashcards 2026 – 250+ Cards

A bit is a single binary digit (0 or 1); a byte is 8 bits. A byte can represent 256 values and typically stores one character.

Base-2: uses only 0 and 1. All digital data is ultimately stored and processed as binary.

Base-16: digits 0-9 then A-F. A compact way to write binary — each hex digit equals 4 bits. Used for MAC addresses, colors, and memory addresses.

Base-10: the everyday system using digits 0-9. Humans read it; computers convert to binary internally.

10. Place values 8+0+2+0 = 10 (8×1 + 4×0 + 2×1 + 1×0).

About 1,000 bytes (1,024 in binary). Units rise by ~1,000×: KB → MB → GB → TB → PB.

Bit → Byte → KB → MB → GB → TB → PB. Each step is roughly 1,000× larger.

A measure of data transfer rate (network/throughput). Note: networking is measured in bits (Mbps), storage in bytes (MB).

Cycles per second — measures clock speed/frequency. CPU speed is in gigahertz (GHz = billions of cycles per second).

Notation = how numbers are written (binary, decimal, hex). Units = what a quantity measures (bytes, Hz, bps, pixels).

Input sends data into a computer (keyboard, mouse, mic, scanner). Output sends data out (monitor, speakers, printer).

The CPU manipulating input data to produce useful output; the core of the input → processing → output → storage model.

Data is raw facts; information is processed, meaningful data. Organizations protect it because it drives decisions and has business value.

Creations of the mind protected by law: trademarks, copyrights, and patents.

Trademark protects brands/logos; copyright protects creative works (text, music, code); patent protects inventions/processes.

Goods delivered electronically rather than physically — software, e-books, streaming media, online services.

Using captured, correlated, and meaningful data to guide choices, rather than guesswork.

True or false — the basis of computer logic and decision-making in programming.

Boolean operators. AND: both true. OR: either true. NOT: reverses the value. They drive conditions and searches.

American Standard Code for Information Interchange — a character-encoding standard mapping letters/symbols to numbers (e.g., A = 65).

A universal character-encoding standard that represents text from virtually all writing systems, far beyond ASCII's 128 characters.

A single piece of information (one value). Many data points together form a data set used for analysis.

The delay before data transfer begins or completes — lower latency means a more responsive system or network.

Bandwidth is the maximum data rate a link can carry; throughput is the actual rate achieved. Measured in bits per second.

The smallest controllable element of a digital image or display. Resolution is the count of pixels (e.g., 1920 × 1080).

Computers work in binary, but humans read decimal and hex. Conversions help interpret addresses, colors, and low-level data.

MB (capital B) = bytes, used for file size. Mb (lowercase b) = bits, used for network speed. 1 byte = 8 bits.

Reducing file size by encoding data more efficiently. Lossless preserves all data; lossy discards some (e.g., JPEG, MP3).

1100. 8 + 4 = 12, so the 8 and 4 place values are 1, the 2 and 1 are 0.

10. In hexadecimal, A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15.

Input → Processing → Output → Storage. The model behind how all computers handle data.

Structured data fits a defined model (rows/columns in a database). Unstructured data has no fixed format (emails, images, video).

A repeatable process: identify the problem, research/establish a theory, test it, fix or escalate, verify, and document.

How many cycles per second a CPU executes, measured in GHz. Higher generally means faster, but cores and architecture matter too.

An independent processing unit within a CPU. Multi-core CPUs run several tasks truly in parallel.

Very fast memory close to the CPU that stores frequently used data to speed up processing.

Finding relationships between data points to turn raw data into useful information for decisions.

Data has business, legal, and personal value; loss or exposure causes financial harm, legal liability, and lost trust.

Analog signals are continuous; digital signals are discrete (0s and 1s). Computers are digital.

1 GHz = 1,000 MHz. Both measure frequency/clock speed; modern CPUs are rated in GHz.

The 'brain' of a computer — executes instructions and performs calculations. Speed is measured in GHz; modern CPUs have multiple cores.

Fast, volatile working memory that holds running programs and data. It is cleared when the computer loses power.

Volatile (RAM) loses data when powered off. Non-volatile (SSD, HDD, flash, ROM) keeps data without power.

HDD uses spinning magnetic platters — cheap, high capacity, slower. SSD uses flash memory — faster, more durable, no moving parts.

The main circuit board connecting and powering all components — CPU, RAM, storage, and expansion cards.

A processor specialized for rendering images and parallel tasks. Can be integrated or a dedicated graphics card.

Converts wall AC power to the DC voltages a computer's internal components need.

Hardware that connects a device to a network (wired Ethernet or wireless). Each has a unique MAC address.

Any external device connected to a computer — keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, webcam, external drive.

Universal Serial Bus — the most common port for connecting peripherals; also provides power. USB-C is the reversible modern connector.

Both carry digital video and audio to displays. HDMI is common on TVs/consumer gear; DisplayPort is common on PCs/monitors.

The standard wired networking connector and cable. Provides a reliable, fast connection to a LAN.

Wired (Ethernet) is faster, more reliable, and more secure. Wireless (Wi-Fi) is convenient and mobile but subject to interference.

A unique logical address identifying a device on a network. IPv4 is four numbers (192.168.1.10); IPv6 is longer hexadecimal.

IPv4 is 32-bit (about 4.3 billion addresses, running out). IPv6 is 128-bit (vastly more), written in hexadecimal.

A unique 48-bit hardware address burned into a network adapter, written in hexadecimal. Used for local (Layer 2) delivery.

A device that connects different networks and forwards traffic between them — for example, your home network to the internet.

A device that connects multiple wired devices on the same local network, forwarding traffic by MAC address.

Modulates/demodulates signals to connect your network to your internet service provider (ISP) over cable, DSL, or fiber.

A device that broadcasts a Wi-Fi signal, letting wireless devices join a wired network.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol — automatically assigns IP addresses and network settings to devices, avoiding manual setup.

Domain Name System — translates human-readable names (example.com) into IP addresses computers use to connect.

LAN (local area network) covers a small area like a home/office. WAN (wide area network) spans large distances — the internet is the largest WAN.

The IEEE family of wireless LAN standards. Newer generations (Wi-Fi 5, 6, 6E) are faster and use 2.4, 5, and 6 GHz bands.

Service Set Identifier — the broadcast name of a Wi-Fi network that you select when connecting.

A short-range wireless standard for connecting peripherals like headphones, keyboards, mice, and speakers.

Low-level software stored on a hardware device that controls its basic functions (e.g., BIOS/UEFI, router firmware).

The firmware that starts a computer, initializes hardware, and loads the operating system. UEFI is the modern replacement for BIOS.

Software that lets the operating system communicate with and control a hardware device.

Running multiple virtual machines on one physical host. A hypervisor creates and manages the VMs, each with its own OS.

Software (also called a virtual machine monitor) that creates and runs virtual machines, sharing one host's hardware among them.

Delivering computing resources (servers, storage, apps) over the internet, on demand, usually pay-as-you-go.

Cloud service models. IaaS = raw infrastructure (VMs). PaaS = a platform to build/deploy apps. SaaS = ready-to-use software (e.g., Gmail).

The ability to scale resources up or down on demand, paying only for what you use.

Everyday devices (thermostats, cameras, sensors, appliances) connected to the internet to collect and exchange data.

Choose storage by capacity (how much it holds) and speed (how fast it reads/writes). SSDs trade some capacity-per-dollar for speed.

Reads/writes CDs, DVDs, or Blu-ray discs using a laser. Increasingly rare on modern systems.

A storage device connected to a network so multiple users/devices can access shared files.

A reserved IP address a device uses to refer to itself, for testing the local network stack.

Virtual Private Network — an encrypted tunnel that securely connects a device to a private network over the public internet.

Wireless internet via a cellular network (4G LTE, 5G), used by phones, tablets, and mobile hotspots.

A physical connection point on a device (USB, HDMI, Ethernet, audio jack) for attaching cables and peripherals.

An add-in board (graphics, sound, network) installed in a motherboard slot to add capability.

A mobile touchscreen computer larger than a phone, used for browsing, media, and light productivity.

A workstation is a powerful PC for one user/task. A server provides shared resources/services to many clients over a network.

A lightweight computer that relies on a server for most processing and storage.

A computer built into a larger device to perform a dedicated function (e.g., a car's controller, a smart appliance).

Internal drives sit inside the device; external drives connect via USB or network for portability or extra capacity.

Storing files on remote servers accessed over the internet (e.g., Google Drive, OneDrive, Dropbox), with anywhere access.

Signals from other devices, walls, or networks that degrade Wi-Fi. Causes include distance, microwaves, and channel overlap.

A device (often a phone) that shares its cellular internet connection with other devices over Wi-Fi.

Internet Service Provider — the company that provides your internet connection (cable, fiber, DSL, cellular, satellite).

The router address a device sends traffic to when the destination is outside its local network.

A value that tells a device which part of an IP address is the network and which part identifies the host.

A static IP is manually fixed and stays the same. A dynamic IP is assigned automatically by DHCP and can change.

Ethernet (RJ45) for networking; USB, HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, and audio for peripherals/displays.

Connect modem → router, set a unique SSID, enable WPA3/WPA2 with a strong passphrase, change default admin credentials, and update firmware.

The number of pixels on screen (e.g., 1920 × 1080 = Full HD). Higher resolution shows more detail.

RAM is temporary working memory for active tasks. Storage (SSD/HDD) keeps files permanently. More RAM ≠ more storage.

Software that manages hardware, runs applications, and provides a user interface. Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS.

Manages the CPU, memory, storage, devices, and processes; provides a file system; and offers a user interface for running apps.

GUI (graphical user interface) uses windows, icons, and a mouse. CLI (command-line interface) uses typed text commands.

Programs that do user tasks — word processors, browsers, spreadsheets, games — as opposed to system software like the OS.

Software that runs and supports the computer itself: the operating system, drivers, and utilities.

Apps for everyday work: word processing, spreadsheets, presentations, email, and note-taking.

An application for creating and editing text documents (e.g., Microsoft Word, Google Docs).

An application for organizing data in rows/columns, performing calculations with formulas, and making charts (e.g., Excel).

An application for building slide decks (e.g., PowerPoint, Google Slides).

Software that retrieves and displays web pages (e.g., Chrome, Edge, Firefox, Safari).

Locally stored copies of web content that speed up page loads. Clearing it can fix display or login issues.

Small files a site stores in your browser to remember settings, logins, and tracking info between visits.

A browser feature that prevents unwanted pop-up windows, often used to block ads or malicious prompts.

A browser mode that doesn't save history, cookies, or form data locally after the session ends.

Add-ons that extend a browser's functionality. Install only from trusted sources, as they can pose security risks.

Local apps install and run on your device. Cloud-hosted (web) apps run on remote servers and are accessed via a browser.

The legal agreement defining how you may use software. Types: single-use, group/volume, concurrent, subscription, and open-source.

Open-source publishes its code and is often free to use/modify. Proprietary keeps code closed and is licensed by a vendor.

Subscription = recurring fee for ongoing access/updates (SaaS). One-time (perpetual) = pay once to own that version.

End-User License Agreement — the contract you accept that governs how you may legally use a piece of software.

Software changes that fix bugs, close security holes, or add features. Keeping software patched is a core security practice.

The suffix after a filename's dot (.docx, .jpg, .exe) that indicates the file type and which app opens it.

.txt (plain text), .rtf (rich text), .docx (Word), .pdf (portable/fixed layout), .odt (OpenDocument).

.jpg (photos, lossy), .png (graphics, lossless, transparency), .gif (simple animation), .bmp, .tiff.

Audio: .mp3, .wav, .flac, .aac. Video: .mp4, .mov, .avi, .mkv.

.zip, .rar, .7z, .tar, .gz — bundle and shrink files for storage or transfer.

Organizing data into folders/directories with clear names, and using copy, move, rename, and delete to maintain it.

A hierarchy of folders that organizes files. A path (e.g., C:\Users\Docs\file.txt) describes a file's location.

Read-only files can be viewed but not changed; read-write files can be edited. File permissions control this access.

Single-platform runs on one OS only; cross-platform runs on several (e.g., a browser available on Windows, macOS, and Linux).

Installing adds a program and its files/registry entries. Uninstalling should use the proper tool to remove all of them cleanly.

An instance of a program currently executing. Task Manager/Activity Monitor shows running processes and resource use.

Tools that let teams work together remotely — chat, video conferencing, shared docs, and project boards.

An OS designed for phones/tablets — Android and iOS are the two dominant examples.

A desktop/laptop OS such as Windows, macOS, or a Linux distribution.

An OS optimized to provide network services to many clients (e.g., Windows Server, Linux server distributions).

How an OS organizes and stores files on a drive (e.g., NTFS, FAT32, exFAT, APFS, ext4).

The program the OS automatically uses to open a given file type (e.g., a default browser or PDF reader).

A utility that shows running processes and CPU, memory, and disk usage, and lets you end unresponsive programs.

Whether software runs on a given OS, version, and hardware. Check system requirements before installing.

64-bit software/OS can use far more RAM and is standard today. 32-bit is legacy and limited to ~4 GB of RAM.

Software that runs in a browser via the internet, requiring no local install (e.g., Google Docs, webmail).

Tools that maintain a system — antivirus, backup, disk cleanup, compression, and diagnostics.

Save updates the current file. Save As creates a new copy, letting you change name, location, or format.

Free has no cost; freemium is free with paid upgrades; paid requires purchase or subscription.

Manage pop-ups, cookies, saved passwords, HTTPS warnings, and extensions to browse safely.

A formal language used to write instructions a computer can execute. Examples: Python, Java, C, JavaScript.

Compiled languages (C, C++) translate to machine code before running — fast. Interpreted languages (Python, JavaScript) run line-by-line via an interpreter — flexible.

Uses tags to define structure/format, not logic. HTML structures web pages; XML stores/transports data.

A language for retrieving and manipulating data, such as SQL for relational databases.

An interpreted language used to automate tasks and glue systems together (e.g., Python, Bash, PowerShell, JavaScript).

A named container that stores a value which can change while a program runs (e.g., score = 10).

A named value that does not change during program execution (e.g., PI = 3.14159).

Categories of values: integer (whole number), float (decimal), char (single character), string (text), boolean (true/false).

An integer is a whole number (5, -12). A float has a decimal point (3.14). Choosing the right type avoids errors.

A sequence of characters (text), usually enclosed in quotes, such as "Hello, world".

A container that holds multiple values in order, accessed by index (position). Useful for collections of related data.

A named, reusable block of code that performs a task and can accept inputs (parameters) and return a result.

A control structure that runs different code based on a condition — the program's decision-making.

Repeating a block of code while a condition holds (while) or a set number of times (for). Avoids duplicating code.

A plain-language outline of program logic, written before code to plan the steps without worrying about syntax.

A diagram of a program's logic using shapes for steps (rectangles), decisions (diamonds), and start/end (ovals).

Instructions executed in order, one after another — the most basic program flow.

A symbol that performs an action: arithmetic (+ - × ÷), comparison (>, <, ==), or logical (AND, OR, NOT).

Test relationships between values: == (equal), != (not equal), > (greater), < (less), >= , <= . Return true or false.

Combine boolean conditions: AND (both true), OR (either true), NOT (reverse). Used in branching and loops.

The name a programmer gives to a variable, function, or constant. Should be clear and descriptive.

A self-contained unit bundling related data (properties) and actions (methods), the basis of object-oriented programming.

A property is data stored on an object (a car's color). A method is an action it can perform (a car's drive()).

A characteristic or data value associated with an object or element (similar to a property).

A structure that holds multiple values — arrays, lists, vectors — letting you group related data together.

A note in source code, ignored by the computer, that explains what the code does for human readers.

The grammar rules of a programming language. A syntax error means the code breaks those rules and won't run.

A syntax error breaks the language rules (won't run). A logic error runs but produces the wrong result.

Finding and fixing errors (bugs) in code so the program behaves correctly.

They reduce repetition, make code reusable and readable, and limit mistakes — write logic once, use it many times.

A step-by-step set of instructions to solve a problem or complete a task — the logic behind a program.

Human-readable instructions a programmer writes, later compiled or interpreted into something the computer runs.

Integrated Development Environment — software that combines a code editor, compiler/interpreter, and debugger (e.g., VS Code, Eclipse).

Low-level languages close to hardware. Machine code is binary the CPU runs directly; assembly is its human-readable form.

A programmer-friendly language (Python, Java) abstracted away from hardware details, easier to read and write.

HyperText Markup Language — uses tags to structure the content of web pages (headings, links, images).

A value passed into a function so it can work on different inputs. The function uses it inside its logic.

The result a function sends back to the code that called it.

A dynamic, ordered collection of values that can grow or shrink — a flexible kind of list/array.

Joining strings together end to end (e.g., "Hello, " + "world" = "Hello, world").

A loop inside another loop, used to work through grids, tables, or combinations of data.

if score >= 650 then print "Pass" else print "Fail" — the program chooses a path based on a condition.

Checking that user-entered data is correct and safe before using it — prevents errors and security flaws.

An organized, structured collection of data stored so it can be easily accessed, managed, and updated.

Database Management System — software that creates, manages, and queries databases (e.g., MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle).

Databases scale, prevent duplicate data, enforce relationships and rules, allow multiple concurrent users, and support fast queries.

Stores data in tables (rows and columns) and links tables by shared keys. Queried with SQL.

A structure of rows and columns that stores data about one type of entity (e.g., a Customers table).

A single entry in a table — one complete set of related fields (e.g., one customer's details).

A single attribute in a table (e.g., LastName). Every record has a value for each field.

A field (or set of fields) that uniquely identifies each record in a table. No duplicates and no nulls allowed.

A field in one table that references the primary key of another table, creating a relationship between them.

The blueprint defining a database's structure: its tables, fields, data types, and relationships.

Structured Query Language — the standard language to create, read, update, and delete data in relational databases.

The SQL command used to retrieve (query) data from one or more tables.

SQL data-manipulation commands: INSERT adds rows, UPDATE changes existing rows, DELETE removes rows.

SQL data-definition commands: CREATE makes a table/database, ALTER modifies its structure, DROP deletes it.

A request to a database to retrieve or change data, usually written in SQL.

Relational uses structured tables and SQL. Non-relational (NoSQL) uses flexible formats (documents, key-value, graph) for unstructured/large data.

Data stored in a single table or file (like a spreadsheet) with no relationships. Simple but doesn't scale or prevent duplication.

A NoSQL type that stores data as documents (often JSON), good for flexible, semi-structured data (e.g., MongoDB).

A NoSQL type that stores data as simple key → value pairs; very fast for lookups (e.g., Redis).

Storing data so it survives after a program closes or the device powers off — the role of databases and files.

Importing brings external data into a system. Exporting sends data out, often as CSV, XML, or JSON.

Comma-Separated Values — a plain-text format storing tabular data, widely used to move data between systems.

A backup is a recent copy for recovery if data is lost. An archive is long-term storage of data no longer actively used.

A saved copy of a database used to restore it after corruption, failure, or accidental deletion.

Multiple users reading/writing the same database at once. The DBMS manages this to keep data consistent.

The accuracy, consistency, and reliability of data. Constraints, keys, and validation rules protect it.

A query retrieves specific data; a report formats and presents that data for people to read and analyze.

A large central store of integrated data from many sources, optimized for analysis and reporting rather than daily transactions.

The kind of value a database column holds — text, integer, decimal, date/time, or boolean.

A rule that enforces data validity — NOT NULL, UNIQUE, primary key, and foreign key constraints.

A structure that speeds up searches on a column, like a book's index — at the cost of extra storage and slower writes.

One record in a table relates to many records in another (e.g., one customer has many orders).

Records on both sides relate to many on the other (e.g., students and courses), usually via a join table.

A query operation that combines rows from two or more tables based on a related column (often keys).

A SQL filter that limits a query to rows meeting a condition (e.g., WHERE state = 'CA').

A SQL clause that sorts query results by one or more columns, ascending or descending.

A field with no value (unknown or missing). Not the same as zero or an empty string.

DDL defines structure (CREATE, ALTER, DROP). DML changes data (SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).

Spreadsheets suit small, simple data and calculations. Databases scale, enforce rules, link tables, and serve many users.

JavaScript Object Notation — a lightweight, human-readable text format for storing and exchanging structured data.

Extensible Markup Language — a tag-based format for storing and transporting structured data between systems.

The three goals of information security: Confidentiality (keep data private), Integrity (keep data accurate), Availability (keep data accessible).

Ensuring only authorized people can access data — achieved with encryption, access controls, and authentication.

Ensuring data is accurate and unaltered. Hashing and checksums detect unauthorized changes.

Ensuring systems and data are accessible when needed — supported by backups, redundancy, and uptime planning.

Verifying who a user is — proving identity with something you know, have, or are.

Determining what an authenticated user is allowed to do or access (their permissions).

Logging and tracking what users do, for auditing and accountability. Part of Authentication, Authorization, Accounting.

Requiring two or more proofs of identity from different categories (e.g., password + phone code), making accounts far harder to breach.

Something you know (password/PIN), something you have (token/phone), something you are (fingerprint/face).

Long, unique, complex passwords; never reused; stored in a password manager; changed if a breach is suspected.

An app that generates, stores, and fills strong unique passwords in an encrypted vault, so you only remember one master password.

Scrambling data so only someone with the key can read it. Protects data at rest (stored) and in transit (moving).

At rest protects stored data (disk/database encryption). In transit protects data moving over a network (HTTPS/TLS, VPN).

The secure version of HTTP — encrypts web traffic with TLS so data between browser and site can't be read or altered.

A one-way function that turns data into a fixed-length value (a hash). Used to store passwords and verify integrity; can't be reversed.

Malicious software designed to harm or exploit systems — viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, spyware, and adware.

A virus attaches to a file and needs a user to run it. A worm self-replicates and spreads across networks on its own.

Malware that encrypts your files and demands payment to restore them. Reliable backups are the best defense.

Malware disguised as legitimate software. Once run, it gives an attacker access or installs other malware.

Malware that secretly gathers information about a user — keystrokes, browsing, credentials — without consent.

A social-engineering attack using fake emails/messages to trick you into revealing credentials or clicking malicious links.

Manipulating people (not systems) into giving up information or access — phishing, pretexting, tailgating, baiting.

Unsolicited bulk messages, often advertising or carrying phishing/malware. Filters and caution reduce the risk.

Hardware or software that filters network traffic by rules, blocking unauthorized connections to protect a device or network.

Software that detects, blocks, and removes malicious programs. Keep it updated to catch new threats.

Applying vendor fixes promptly closes known security holes attackers exploit — one of the most effective defenses.

Give users and programs only the minimum access they need to do their job, limiting damage if an account is compromised.

Standard users have limited rights; administrators can change the system. Use a standard account for daily work to reduce risk.

Settings that define who can read, write, or execute a file or resource. The basis of authorization.

Protecting hardware and access to it — locks, badges, cameras, locked server rooms, and screen privacy.

Keep 3 copies of data, on 2 different media, with 1 copy offsite. Protects against loss, failure, and ransomware.

Security protects data from unauthorized access. Privacy concerns how personal data is collected, used, and shared.

Personally Identifiable Information — data that can identify an individual (name, SSN, address). Must be protected carefully.

Use WPA3 (or WPA2 at minimum) with a strong passphrase. Avoid open networks and the obsolete, insecure WEP.

Open networks let attackers intercept traffic. Use a VPN and HTTPS sites, and avoid sensitive logins on public Wi-Fi.

Trying many passwords until one works. Long passwords, lockouts, and MFA defend against it.

An attacker secretly relays/alters traffic between two parties. Encryption (HTTPS, VPN) makes intercepted data useless.

In the cloud, the provider secures the infrastructure; you secure your data, accounts, and access settings.

Reducing a device's attack surface: remove unused software, disable unneeded services, patch, and enforce strong settings.

Confirm unexpected requests for money or credentials through a separate channel — a key defense against phishing/BEC.

A physical social-engineering attack where someone follows an authorized person through a secure door without credentials.

Stealing information (passwords, PINs) by watching someone enter it. Privacy screens and awareness defend against it.

Searching discarded materials for sensitive information. Shredding documents prevents it.

A routine of testing and applying software updates promptly to close vulnerabilities across all systems.

Authenticating once to access multiple related applications, reducing password fatigue while centralizing security.

Using a physical trait (fingerprint, face, iris) to verify identity — a 'something you are' factor.

Temporarily disabling an account after too many failed logins, to slow brute-force attacks.

Data loss means data becomes unavailable (deleted, corrupted). A breach means data is accessed/stolen by unauthorized parties.

Permanently erasing data so it can't be recovered, important before disposing of or reselling a device.

Encrypts your internet traffic and hides it from local snoopers — essential on public/untrusted networks.

Software that displays unwanted ads; some tracks behavior. Often bundled with free downloads — install carefully.

A vulnerability unknown to the vendor with no patch yet available, making it especially dangerous.

A plan to restore IT systems and data after a major outage, attack, or disaster — backups are its foundation.