HESI A2: Reading Comprehension (Quiz 3)

Human embryo research is controversial and ethically murky. Based on moral perspectives on human embryos, countries such as Turkey, Russia, Germany, Austria, and Italy do not allow research on human embryos. China, Japan, India, Canada, Spain, and the U.K. permit human embryo research strictly up to 14 days. Brazil and France have no such limitations. Following previous International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) standards, 14-day research limits align with when embryonic implantation completes In May 2021, ISSCR updated guidelines, encouraging academics, scientists, and institutions to discuss 14-day human embryo research limits and related ethical issues with the public. Moral and ethical concerns are highly complex and important. Human embryo research should be allowed at least up to 14 days because it can yield benefits to the study of cancer, congenital diseases, miscarriages, infertility, and human development. Why does the author include the sentence “Moral and ethical concerns are highly complex and important” in the paragraph?

The Original Roman Holiday The classical phrase, “All roads lead to Rome,” is used to signify the importance of the Italian capital in culture, especially in terms of navigation and architecture. Although most of us are likely familiar with this phrase — as well as the influence the early Romans had on modern infrastructure — we are probably not as informed regarding just how many of our traditions date back to the Roman empire. In fact, the next time you prepare for a beach getaway or a trip abroad, it would be worth noting that vacations were invented by noble society members in ancient Rome. Each August, government officials, their families, and affluent members of the society traveled to the brisk seaside in order to escape the scorching heat of the capital city. Evidence from the time period suggests that large estates, otherwise known as villas, were home to the wealthy citizens for nearly the entire month. The most popular holiday centers were located along what is now known to be the Gulf of Naples. Unfortunately, these lavish resorts were entirely swept away by the devastating volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, forcing anthropologists to piece together descriptions and paintings of these areas rather than collect actual artifacts. Before the tragedy, however, the three most popular resorts in the area (Herculaneum, Stabia, and Oplontis), were home to wealthy Romans once a year. Based on written accounts, the centers were finely decorated with frescoed arenas and often contained direct access to the lush seaside and private spas. Since each location contained dedicated servants, chefs, and even farmers to tend to the guests and the area, vacationers did not typically bring their usual wait staff with them on vacations. Based on this evidence, it is clear that the Romans had all members of the society in mind when creating the August holiday season. Interestingly enough, the custom of taking vacations (or at least relaxing for a few days) in August is still popular in Italy and the surrounding countries. In fact, August 15th is still considered a national holiday in Italy, which seeks to honor the first ruler of the Roman Empire: Augustus. Not only does the name for the eighth month of the Gregorian calendar derive from this emperor’s, but the name of the bank holiday does as well. In particular, the Latin phrase, feriae Augusti, literally translates to “August’s rest”. Although vacations are now taken throughout the year, usually based on work schedules and other priorities, some areas of the world still follow the traditions of ancient civilizations. What is the author’s general opinion regarding the volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD?

Paleontologists have found what they call a “one in a million” fossil. Splitting rocks to find perfect fossils is painstaking. But one 310-million-year-old horseshoe crab fossil broke by chance to reveal impressions of its central nervous system. Brains consist of such delicate soft tissues and they are extraordinarily hard to preserve, even through fossilization. Soft tissues are incredibly rare to find in fossils because soft tissues decompose so quickly, especially the delicate fatty structures of the brain. To date, only about 20 fossilized arthropod neural tissue samples have been identified. The ancient arthropod’s fossilized brain bears striking resemblance to that of present-day horseshoe crabs. The impression holds valuable clues about the species’ evolution. Which of the following statements best describes the point of view of the author?

The Original Roman Holiday The classical phrase, “All roads lead to Rome,” is used to signify the importance of the Italian capital in culture, especially in terms of navigation and architecture. Although most of us are likely familiar with this phrase — as well as the influence the early Romans had on modern infrastructure — we are probably not as informed regarding just how many of our traditions date back to the Roman empire. In fact, the next time you prepare for a beach getaway or a trip abroad, it would be worth noting that vacations were invented by noble society members in ancient Rome. Each August, government officials, their families, and affluent members of the society traveled to the brisk seaside in order to escape the scorching heat of the capital city. Evidence from the time period suggests that large estates, otherwise known as villas, were home to the wealthy citizens for nearly the entire month. The most popular holiday centers were located along what is now known to be the Gulf of Naples. Unfortunately, these lavish resorts were entirely swept away by the devastating volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, forcing anthropologists to piece together descriptions and paintings of these areas rather than collect actual artifacts. Before the tragedy, however, the three most popular resorts in the area (Herculaneum, Stabia, and Oplontis), were home to wealthy Romans once a year. Based on written accounts, the centers were finely decorated with frescoed arenas, and often contained direct access to the lush seaside and private spas. Since each location contained dedicated servants, chefs, and even farmers to tend to the guests and the area, vacationers did not typically bring their usual wait staff with them on vacations. Based on this evidence, it is clear that the Romans had all members of the society in mind when creating the August holiday season. Interestingly enough, the custom of taking vacations (or at least relaxing for a few days) in August is still popular in Italy and the surrounding countries. In fact, August 15th is still considered a national holiday in Italy, which seeks to honor the first ruler of the Roman Empire: Augustus. Not only does the name for the eighth month of the Gregorian calendar derive from this emperor’s, but the name of the bank holiday does as well. In particular, the Latin phrase, feriae Augusti, literally translates to “August’s rest”. Although vacations are now taken throughout the year, usually based on work schedules and other priorities, some areas of the world still follow traditions of ancient civilizations. What is the author’s general opinion regarding society’s knowledge of Roman traditions?

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a culmination of extremely large-scale ocean currents present in the top 1,000 meters of the Atlantic Ocean. Warmer water high in salt content travels northwards through a system of currents. Once the warm, salty water reaches high latitudes in the subpolar region of the North Atlantic, the water cools rapidly. Cooling makes the water denser, so it sinks down below 1,000 meters and flows south again. This giant system transports heat from the tropics and subtropics north towards Greenland, Iceland, Canada, and the U.K. The AMOC modulates weather and climate to keep the regions around it habitable. Climate models predict that the AMOC’s cycles may start slowing over the coming decades, leading to increasingly extreme weather and further disrupting climate in both warm and cool regions. Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?

Neuroscience in the Classroom When it comes to early childhood education, could principles of neuroscience and experimental studies help educators teach more effectively? This is a popular question studied by leading international psychologists and research analysts focusing on educational psychology. However, the answer to this question requires advanced technological research tools, detailed scientific analyses, and, above all, time and patience to understand the results. Over the past ten years, innovative research centers have helped scientists understand how neural mechanisms impact children’s learning behavior. In other words, the study of neuroscience is opening new doors for analyzing how children learn basic functions. Neuroimaging, for example, is just one of the ways that scientists have been able to link visual capabilities with how well children comprehend letters of the alphabet. Although various concepts in early childhood education, such as observation and communication, are already understood within the scientific community and applied in the classroom setting, neuroscience allows psychologists to create completely new theories regarding childhood development. Currently, it is estimated that the discipline has allowed for the discovery of four pillars of learning: attentiveness, active output, feedback, and motor skills. The first learning pillar, i.e., attentiveness, is described as a child’s ability to digest both general and detailed concepts. That is, it helps children understand the “big picture” of a subject and focus in on the details when necessary. The second pillar, i.e., active output, seeks to quantify the verbal and written productivity of a student based on information received in the classroom. The third pillar, i.e., feedback, involves a child’s ability to self-assess and provide regular checks when understanding the material that has been learned. This pillar is noteworthy since it calls for both the feedback of the individual and that of the educator. Last but not the least, motor skills are acquired through daily repetition of what has been learned. Thanks to natural sleep cycles, this information is consolidated and stored in the brain for future access. An important part of these pillars is the concept of automatization, which occurs when a skill has been practiced so much that it becomes second nature and requires little to no conscious effort. However, according to leading experts at the Sorbonne University in Paris, a number of systematic errors can still present themselves with automatization. For instance, studies have shown that younger students seem to make simple mistakes in logic and reasoning problems in classroom settings, even though these tasks involve automatization. Researchers believe that training the brain through neuroscience practices can eliminate the occurrence of these mistakes while strengthening automatization. The abundance of research pertaining to neuroscience in the classroom as well as the increasingly vast possibilities of new theories have led to the development of a new field: neuroeducation. However, as with any new discipline, it will need to overcome hurdles within the scientific community. Although projects and collaborations between scientists and educators around the world are growing, gaining acceptance within the educational sphere will likely require more stable results to establish credibility. Which of the following ideas can be inferred from the text?

Traditionally, type 2 diabetes control methods have involved drugs that manage risk factors including high cholesterol, blood sugar, and cholesterol. These drugs fail to treat the underlying causes of type 2 diabetes. The disease stems from issues with the ability of the hormone insulin to control blood sugar effectively. Controlling blood sugar levels with drugs is a treatment, not a cure. Research increasingly demonstrates that surgery and dieting to lose weight helps to resolve some underlying causes of type 2 diabetes. Weight loss helps the body control blood sugar on its own and can be a step towards type 2 diabetes remission. Specific diets like low-carbohydrate regimens have promising results in accomplishing remission. Low-carbohydrate diets lead to remission in one in five people, while meal-replacement diets achieve remission in about one in three people. Which of the following statements best describes the point of view of the author?

Understanding Stress Mechanisms Meeting deadlines, presenting important projects, or balancing professional and personal priorities are just a few ways that people experience stress on a daily basis. Despite the fact that most of these stress-inducing activities seem to stem from outside factors, our internal response to stress plays an important role in managing the ebbs and flows of life. In fact, the brain has an excellent way of establishing a resilient response system, but most of us probably do not realize the power that the mind can have over stressful situations. When confronted with a difficult situation, the mind activates its very own defense system which starts from the most “instinctive” zone of the brain: the hippocampus and the amygdala. These parts of the brain are extremely important structures. The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for declarative or episodic memory. The two amygdala, on the other hand, are located close to the hippocampus and are essential for the input and processing of emotion. Thus, these two regions of the brain interact during emotional events, in order to translate the events into outcomes. For example, in an anxiety-inducing situation, the two structures would likely unleash a series of hormones that would generate negative emotions, such as anxiety. However, responses to stress involve much more than just the hippocampus and the amygdala. Specifically, when it comes to hormones, another important factor is the reaction of the pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain. This gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland”, since it is known for controlling the output of most hormones in the body. For this reason, it interacts with the responses from the hippocampus and the amygdala. Soon after the pituitary gland takes action, the adrenal glands produce cortisol, a hormone that keeps the body in a state of alertness. Prominent markers of this state include an increased heartbeat, profuse sweating, and heavy breathing. Finally, these actions trigger the glucose reserved in the liver to be released into the bloodstream, providing a quick dose of energy and preparing a person for an acute stress response, which is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. Although it is common to attribute these dramatic responses to stress in cases of physical harm, such as getting into a car accident, the body maintains this reaction even in instances of emotional stress. As such, it would not be unusual for someone with a fear of public speaking to go through the same emotions, or experience an anxiety-induced physical state, before delivering a speech in front of a large crowd. After all, the brain is concerned with protecting the body from all types of uncomfortable situations. What is the best way to summarize the fourth paragraph?

The Original Roman Holiday The classical phrase, “All roads lead to Rome,” is used to signify the importance of the Italian capital in culture, especially in terms of navigation and architecture. Although most of us are likely familiar with this phrase — as well as the influence the early Romans had on modern infrastructure — we are probably not as informed regarding just how many of our traditions date back to the Roman empire. In fact, the next time you prepare for a beach getaway or a trip abroad, it would be worth noting that vacations were invented by noble society members in ancient Rome. Each August, government officials, their families, and affluent members of the society traveled to the brisk seaside in order to escape the scorching heat of the capital city. Evidence from the time period suggests that large estates, otherwise known as villas, were home to the wealthy citizens for nearly the entire month. The most popular holiday centers were located along what is now known to be the Gulf of Naples. Unfortunately, these lavish resorts were entirely swept away by the devastating volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, forcing anthropologists to piece together descriptions and paintings of these areas rather than collect actual artifacts. Before the tragedy, however, the three most popular resorts in the area (Herculaneum, Stabia, and Oplontis), were home to wealthy Romans once a year. Based on written accounts, the centers were finely decorated with frescoed arenas and often contained direct access to the lush seaside and private spas. Since each location contained dedicated servants, chefs, and even farmers to tend to the guests and the area, vacationers did not typically bring their usual wait staff with them on vacations. Based on this evidence, it is clear that the Romans had all members of the society in mind when creating the August holiday season. Interestingly enough, the custom of taking vacations (or at least relaxing for a few days) in August is still popular in Italy and the surrounding countries. In fact, August 15th is still considered a national holiday in Italy, which seeks to honor the first ruler of the Roman Empire: Augustus. Not only does the name for the eighth month of the Gregorian calendar derive from this emperor’s, but the name of the bank holiday does as well. In particular, the Latin phrase, feriae Augusti, literally translates to “August’s rest”. Although vacations are now taken throughout the year, usually based on work schedules and other priorities, some areas of the world still follow the traditions of ancient civilizations. Which supporting detail is an example of opinion, rather than fact?

The Choir of the Rainforest: Heard But Not Seen Some of the most popular sounds used for relaxation purposes include white noise and sounds of the tropical rainforest. When it comes to the latter, however, the most distinct chirping noise is made by a group of insects that is easily heard but almost impossible to spot with the human eye. Insects in the Tettigoniidae family, otherwise known as “bush crickets,” are aesthetically similar to long-horned grasshoppers. Their vocal capabilities, however, are extremely unique and serve an important biological purpose. Common insects in the Tettigoniidae family, such as crickets, are easily spotted in parks and neighborhoods. But if you were to walk through a lush rainforest, you probably would not be able to spot bush crickets since they are easily camouflaged within the abundance of green leaves on enormous trees. This specific trait helps these crickets protect themselves from predators, all the while communicating with each other across large distances. For this reason, bush crickets are known as the “invisible choir” of the rainforest, discreetly providing a clear soundtrack to nature’s wonders. According to a team of researchers in the Barro Colorado Island, located in the middle of the Panama Canal, bush crickets unleash a series of distinct howls throughout the night, with the highest point occurring right before dawn. These sounds are capable of being heard up to five kilometers away. Interestingly enough, the noises made by these insects seem to be in harmony with each other and make up a deliberate communication system. In fact, the survival of tropical species depends largely on the efficiency of the loud, nightly howls and unique chirping noises of these insects. After observing this species for decades, researchers have proven that male bush crickets not only utilize the sounds to find suitable mates but are also responsible for making up a majority of them. While their female counterparts may sometimes respond to these calls with separate sounds and calls, male bush crickets are the most prominent singers of the so-called choir, responsible for innumerable howls each night. The intensity of the sounds is made possible by the speed at which the crickets rub their wings together. Additionally, each wing contains a set of minuscule “teeth,” similar to a fine-tooth comb, which vibrates and further extends the reverberation throughout the entire rainforest. In an effort to distinguish the various mating calls and additional sounds of these insects, researchers in Panama have recently recorded the voices of over 60 species in the Tettigoniidae family. With these recordings, scientists hope to develop an algorithm that will help analyze the distinct sounds and eventually match each sound with its specific species. For the time being, though, one thing is clear: there is truly more than what meets the eye—and ear—when it comes to the soundtrack of the rainforest. Which of the following inferences can be made from the passage?

Understanding Stress Mechanisms Meeting deadlines, presenting important projects, or balancing professional and personal priorities are just a few ways that people experience stress on a daily basis. Despite the fact that most of these stress-inducing activities seem to stem from outside factors, our internal response to stress plays an important role in managing the ebbs and flows of life. In fact, the brain has an excellent way of establishing a resilient response system, but most of us probably do not realize the power that the mind can have over stressful situations. When confronted with a difficult situation, the mind activates its very own defense system which starts from the most “instinctive” zone of the brain: the hippocampus and the amygdala. These parts of the brain are extremely important structures. The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for declarative or episodic memory. The two amygdala, on the other hand, are located close to the hippocampus and are essential for the input and processing of emotion. Thus, these two regions of the brain interact during emotional events, in order to translate the events into outcomes. For example, in an anxiety-inducing situation, the two structures would likely unleash a series of hormones that would generate negative emotions, such as anxiety. However, responses to stress involve much more than just the hippocampus and the amygdala. Specifically, when it comes to hormones, another important factor is the reaction of the pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain. This gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland”, since it is known for controlling the output of most hormones in the body. For this reason, it interacts with the responses from the hippocampus and the amygdala. Soon after the pituitary gland takes action, the adrenal glands produce cortisol, a hormone that keeps the body in a state of alertness. Prominent markers of this state include an increased heartbeat, profuse sweating, and heavy breathing. Finally, these actions trigger the glucose reserved in the liver to be released into the bloodstream, providing a quick dose of energy and preparing a person for an acute stress response, which is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. Although it is common to attribute these dramatic responses to stress in cases of physical harm, such as getting into a car accident, the body maintains this reaction even in instances of emotional stress. As such, it would not be unusual for someone with a fear of public speaking to go through the same emotions, or experience an anxiety-induced physical state, before delivering a speech in front of a large crowd. After all, the brain is concerned with protecting the body from all types of uncomfortable situations. What is the best summary of the passage?

The anesthetic drug ketamine is emerging as a potential depression treatment. Ketamine is used recreationally due to psychedelic effects. Clinically, two-thirds of patients experience relief from weeks of severe depression within hours of just a single ketamine dose. The early results are promising compared to limited results from conventional antidepressants. Researchers suspect that ketamine treats depression by influencing the neurotransmitter glutamate. Elevated glutamate release is associated with depression, stress, and mood disorders. In some brain regions, ketamine increases glutamate release. Other areas such as the prefrontal cortex decrease glutamate release in response to ketamine. Microscopic analysis shows ketamine encouraging neurons to release more adenosine, blocking glutamate production. There are still concerns about ketamine’s side effects. It is psychoactive and can cause fatigue, anxiety, restlessness, hallucinations, and dizziness. What is the best summary of the passage?

In 2020, mining corporation Rio Tinto blasted Juukan Gorges in Western Pilbara, Australia. The historically and culturally significant 46,000-year-old Aboriginal rock shelters were the only remaining Australian inland sites with signs of human life throughout the last Ice Age. Puutu Kunti Kurrama land owners mourn the irreparable loss. Rio Tinto attained ministerial consent to damage the caves in 2013. In 2014, archaeologists found new discoveries about the shelters’ ages and artifacts like 4,000-year-old human hair. State laws unbelievably allowed Rio Tinto to destroy them anyway. The shameful act is not an isolated incident. In 2019, a Sydney rail line’s construction destroyed a site, home to 2,400 18th and 19th century Aboriginal stone artifacts. Urgent legislation is needed to stop similar offenses—a current gas project threatens ancient Burrup Peninsula rock carvings. What is the author’s purpose for writing this paragraph?

The rampant genetic disorder cystic fibrosis impacts primarily the lungs. It causes repeated lung infections, labored breathing, and coughing up mucus. Cystic fibrosis is incurable and also affects the kidneys, liver, pancreas, and intestine. At Hubrecht Institute, UMC Utrecht, and Oncode Institute, researchers manipulated cultured human stem cells to interfere with mutations that cause cystic fibrosis. Through a method called prime editing, they replaced the flawed DNA pieces with healthy ones. Prime editing of genes is a safer variation of the gene-editing technique known as CRISPR/Cas9. The CRISPR/Cas9 approach involves cutting the DNA, which damages other parts of the genome. Prime editing is safer than CRISPR/Cas9 because it builds a new piece of DNA without causing damage. Based on the information regarding CRISPR/Cas9, what can be inferred about its role in the eradication of cystic fibrosis?

A “Clean” Replacement For Bees With the recent decline of bees and bumblebees, botanists have teamed up with scientists to answer a question that seems to become more important as time goes on: will it ever be possible to replace bees? The answers to this question may ultimately decide how the environment will be impacted once the likely extinction of bees takes place. Although it would be hard to replicate the intense labor of these life-sustaining pollinators, new technology may assist in finding alternative, practical solutions with the use of drones and a household cleaning supply: soap! Since 2017, researchers at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Japan have started replicating the necessary components for the fruitful pollination of various plants. They have discovered that employing the use of drones could effectively administer droplets of pollen to plants, similar to how bees would collect and distribute pollen in natural circumstances. Through numerous efforts of trial and error, however, the scientists have realized that even the smallest drones (measuring around four centimeters) could potentially damage the delicate nature of plants. Despite the rough, metallic exteriors of drones, researchers discovered a way to successfully utilize them in the pollination process. Instead of instructing the drones to drop pollen directly into each plant, they would release soft soap bubbles instead, which would safely encase the pollen and open upon contact with the plant. In order to develop a balanced mixture of all ingredients, pollen grains were first mixed with a nutrient-enriched soap solution that contained a low level of plant toxicity. The soap’s components were of maximum importance in this matter, since they could drastically alter the plants’ absorption of each pollen granule. Once the chemical levels of the soapy mixture were finalized, testing on actual Japanese pear plants began. After the drone dispersed the soap suds, each flower came into contact with approximately 2,000 granules of pollen. The team waited nearly two weeks for extremely positive results; the artificial process had provided as many fruitful results as would have been attained with natural pollination. Given the fact that most pollination of pear and apple trees is done by hand in Japan, this method would allow many more plants to be fertilized with the same amount of pollen in drastically less time. Although initial tests have produced positive results, the weather is likely to have a negative impact on the method’s immediate success. As of now, the bubbles’ efficiency is largely dependent on the weather, and could “pop” at inopportune times due to strong gusts of wind and even the slightest rain showers. Researchers believe that these problems could be solved with technology and robotic engineering programs. With more research and development, they hope to design an automated system that could map out the most logical routes based on daily weather forecasting and growth patterns. While these drones were established to solve a potential problem of extinction, they may help cut back costs of labor involved in fertilization. What can be inferred regarding the impact of weather on the pollination method with soap suds?

The Choir of the Rainforest: Heard But Not Seen Some of the most popular sounds used for relaxation purposes include white noise and sounds of the tropical rainforest. When it comes to the latter, however, the most distinct chirping noise is made by a group of insects that is easily heard but almost impossible to spot with the human eye. Insects in the Tettigoniidae family, otherwise known as “bush crickets,” are aesthetically similar to long-horned grasshoppers. Their vocal capabilities, however, are extremely unique and serve an important biological purpose. Common insects in the Tettigoniidae family, such as crickets, are easily spotted in parks and neighborhoods. But if you were to walk through a lush rainforest, you probably would not be able to spot bush crickets since they are easily camouflaged within the abundance of green leaves on enormous trees. This specific trait helps these crickets protect themselves from predators, all the while communicating with each other across large distances. For this reason, bush crickets are known as the “invisible choir” of the rainforest, discreetly providing a clear soundtrack to nature’s wonders. According to a team of researchers in the Barro Colorado Island, located in the middle of the Panama Canal, bush crickets unleash a series of distinct howls throughout the night, with the highest point occurring right before dawn. These sounds are capable of being heard up to five kilometers away. Interestingly enough, the noises made by these insects seem to be in harmony with each other and make up a deliberate communication system. In fact, the survival of tropical species depends largely on the efficiency of the loud, nightly howls and unique chirping noises of these insects. After observing this species for decades, researchers have proven that male bush crickets not only utilize the sounds to find suitable mates but are also responsible for making up a majority of them. While their female counterparts may sometimes respond to these calls with separate sounds and calls, male bush crickets are the most prominent singers of the so-called choir, responsible for innumerable howls each night. The intensity of the sounds is made possible by the speed at which the crickets rub their wings together. Additionally, each wing contains a set of minuscule “teeth,” similar to a fine-tooth comb, which vibrates and further extends the reverberation throughout the entire rainforest. In an effort to distinguish the various mating calls and additional sounds of these insects, researchers in Panama have recently recorded the voices of over 60 species in the Tettigoniidae family. With these recordings, scientists hope to develop an algorithm that will help analyze the distinct sounds and eventually match each sound with its specific species. For the time being, though, one thing is clear: there is truly more than what meets the eye—and ear—when it comes to the soundtrack of the rainforest. Which of the following ideas can be inferred from the passage?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: What is the primary purpose of the passage?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: Which best explains the author’s opinion regarding the National Football League’s (NFL) response to concussion dangers?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: What is the meaning of the word ‘degenerative’ used in the second paragraph to describe ‘a degenerative brain disorder’?

A “Clean” Replacement For Bees With the recent decline of bees and bumblebees, botanists have teamed up with scientists to answer a question that seems to become more important as time goes on: will it ever be possible to replace bees? The answers to this question may ultimately decide how the environment will be impacted once the likely extinction of bees takes place. Although it would be hard to replicate the intense labor of these life-sustaining pollinators, new technology may assist in finding alternative, practical solutions with the use of drones and a household cleaning supply: soap! Since 2017, researchers at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Japan have started replicating the necessary components for the fruitful pollination of various plants. They have discovered that employing the use of drones could effectively administer droplets of pollen to plants, similar to how bees would collect and distribute pollen in natural circumstances. Through numerous efforts of trial and error, however, the scientists have realized that even the smallest drones (measuring around four centimeters) could potentially damage the delicate nature of plants. Despite the rough, metallic exteriors of drones, researchers discovered a way to successfully utilize them in the pollination process. Instead of instructing the drones to drop pollen directly into each plant, they would release soft soap bubbles instead, which would safely encase the pollen and open upon contact with the plant. In order to develop a balanced mixture of all ingredients, pollen grains were first mixed with a nutrient-enriched soap solution that contained a low level of plant toxicity. The soap’s components were of maximum importance in this matter, since they could drastically alter the plants’ absorption of each pollen granule. Once the chemical levels of the soapy mixture were finalized, testing on actual Japanese pear plants began. After the drone dispersed the soap suds, each flower came into contact with approximately 2,000 granules of pollen. The team waited nearly two weeks for extremely positive results; the artificial process had provided as many fruitful results as would have been attained with natural pollination. Given the fact that most pollination of pear and apple trees is done by hand in Japan, this method would allow many more plants to be fertilized with the same amount of pollen in drastically less time. Although initial tests have produced positive results, the weather is likely to have a negative impact on the method’s immediate success. As of now, the bubbles’ efficiency is largely dependent on the weather, and could “pop” at inopportune times due to strong gusts of wind and even the slightest rain showers. Researchers believe that these problems could be solved with technology and robotic engineering programs. With more research and development, they hope to design an automated system that could map out the most logical routes based on daily weather forecasting and growth patterns. While these drones were established to solve a potential problem of extinction, they may help cut back costs of labor involved in fertilization. Based on information in the passage, which of the following points can be inferred regarding the benefits of the proposed pollination system developed by the researchers?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the best summary of the passage?

Wrinkles: Skin wrinkles are caused by a variety of factors. Some of these factors are intrinsic, meaning that you cannot control them because they occur naturally. Others are extrinsic, meaning that they are caused by circumstances outside of the body. One intrinsic factor is aging. As you age, your skin loses collagen, which is the protein responsible for keeping your skin elastic. With less collagen, your skin becomes thinner and more fragile. Aging also reduces the functioning of sweat and oil glands, which work to keep the skin looking smooth. You also lose fat in the deeper layers of your skin as you age. This fat loss causes your skin to sag and develop deeper wrinkles. The two most common extrinsic factors are exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV rays) and smoking. UV rays in sunlight break down your skin’s connective tissue and collagen fibers. To prevent the appearance of wrinkles (as well as protect yourself from skin cancer), you should always use UV-blocking sunscreen. The nicotine in cigarettes is the most likely link between smoking and wrinkles. Nicotine narrows the blood vessels, reducing the blood supply to your skin tissue. This deprives your skin of oxygen and important nutrients, causing damage that contributes to wrinkles. Question: According to the text, what can be inferred from skin that has gone through the aging process?

Preventing Heart Disease: Heart disease is a life-threatening condition that kills millions of people every year. In fact, heart disease is the number one killer of human beings worldwide; over thirty percent of deaths every year are due to some form of cardiovascular disease. Although there are many different types of medications and surgical procedures that can treat heart disease, prevention is the most important factor in reducing the number of deaths. Proper nutrition is important in preventing heart disease. The recommended diet for a healthy heart is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, salt, and refined sugar. The diet should be high in fiber, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Smoking and excessive alcohol consumption should be avoided. Smoking increases the risk for heart disease at least ten-fold, and drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of some fats in the blood and lead to high blood pressure and increase the risk of cardiovascular damage. Lack of physical exercise can also make a person more likely to suffer from heart disease. Participating regularly in aerobic exercise, which can include walking, jogging, dancing, or swimming, significantly reduces the risk of heart disease. Another contributor to heart disease is stress. Constant stress can expose your body to persistently elevated levels of the stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline. High levels of these hormones can increase blood pressure and damage artery walls. Engaging in yoga, meditation, or other relaxation techniques can be helpful in reducing stress and lowering the risk for heart disease. Question: Why does the author begin the passage with statistics regarding heart disease, such as “over thirty percent of deaths every year” ?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the meaning of the word spasms in paragraph 1?

Does Low Body Temperature Cause Illness?: As children, we are often told to dress warmly in the winter so we do not get sick. This is a common piece of advice, but is there any truth behind it? In fact, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that being cold can get you sick. Most illnesses are caused by viruses and bacteria. Illnesses like strep throat, influenza, and the common cold are only spread through contact with other infected people. How cold you are when you come into contact with the virus or bacteria has nothing to do with whether or not you will get sick. The effect of body temperature on contracting illness was tested on human beings in the 1950s. Researchers divided volunteers into two groups: half of them were kept in a warm room and the other half were kept in a cold room. Both groups were then exposed to rhinovirus–the virus responsible for the common cold. The researchers discovered that members of both groups developed colds at the same rate. Since that first experiment, there have been similar experiments performed with a variety of different illnesses. All have yielded the same result: being cold does not make a person more likely to get sick. Of course, it does seem that people do get sick more often when the weather is cold. However, this is because there is some evidence that people do get sick more often in cold weather, but it has nothing to do with forgetting to bundle up when it is chilly. When it is cold outside, people tend to stay inside. With so many people gathered closely together indoors, germs are spread more easily. Germs are spread from person to person, regardless of how cold or warm their bodies are. Based on information in the text, what can be inferred regarding the findings of the experiment described in paragraph 2?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What can be inferred about some cases of persistent hiccups?

Fibromyalgia: Fibromyalgia is a chronic condition that affects an estimated 3-6% of the world’s population. The disorder is characterized by both physiological and psychological symptoms, including nerve pain, fatigue, sleep and mood disturbances, headaches, bowel problems, and incontinence. The exact cause of fibromyalgia is unknown. For some people, fibromyalgia symptoms begin after some sort of physical or psychological stress. However, for others, the onset of symptoms is gradual. Research has shown that genetics may play a part, but there is also evidence that environmental factors can contribute. The wide variety of symptoms made it difficult to diagnose and treat for many years, though recent research has made some promising advances. Although a cure for fibromyalgia has not yet been developed, research has shown that some of the symptoms can be treated with pharmaceuticals, such as tricyclics or gabapentinoids, or non-pharmacological methods, such as meditation, mindfulness, and cognitive behavior therapy. The most successful pharmacological treatment for fibromyalgia has been tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline. These drugs increase the levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, which are often found at decreased levels in the brains of people who suffer from chronic pain. By boosting endorphins and relaxing muscles, tricyclics can ease some of the musculoskeletal pain felt by people with fibromyalgia. Question: Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?

Wrinkles: Skin wrinkles are caused by a variety of factors. Some of these factors are intrinsic, meaning that you cannot control them because they occur naturally. Others are extrinsic, meaning that they are caused by circumstances outside of the body. One intrinsic factor is aging. As you age, your skin loses collagen, which is the protein responsible for keeping your skin elastic. With less collagen, your skin becomes thinner and more fragile. Aging also reduces the functioning of sweat and oil glands, which work to keep the skin looking smooth. You also lose fat in the deeper layers of your skin as you age. This fat loss causes your skin to sag and develop deeper wrinkles. The two most common extrinsic factors are exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV rays) and smoking. UV rays in sunlight break down your skin’s connective tissue and collagen fibers. To prevent the appearance of wrinkles (as well as protect yourself from skin cancer), you should always use UV-blocking sunscreen. The nicotine in cigarettes is the most likely link between smoking and wrinkles. Nicotine narrows the blood vessels, reducing the blood supply to your skin tissue. This deprives your skin of oxygen and important nutrients, causing damage that contributes to wrinkles. Question: Based on information provided in the text, which would NOT be an example of an extrinsic factor?

Fibromyalgia: Fibromyalgia is a chronic condition that affects an estimated 3-6% of the world’s population. The disorder is characterized by both physiological and psychological symptoms, including nerve pain, fatigue, sleep and mood disturbances, headaches, bowel problems, and incontinence. The exact cause of fibromyalgia is unknown. For some people, fibromyalgia symptoms begin after some sort of physical or psychological stress. However, for others, the onset of symptoms is gradual. Research has shown that genetics may play a part, but there is also evidence that environmental factors can contribute. The wide variety of symptoms made it difficult to diagnose and treat for many years, though recent research has made some promising advances. Although a cure for fibromyalgia has not yet been developed, research has shown that some of the symptoms can be treated with pharmaceuticals, such as tricyclics or gabapentinoids, or non-pharmacological methods, such as meditation, mindfulness, and cognitive behavior therapy. The most successful pharmacological treatment for fibromyalgia has been tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline. These drugs increase the levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, which are often found at decreased levels in the brains of people who suffer from chronic pain. By boosting endorphins and relaxing muscles, tricyclics can ease some of the musculoskeletal pain felt by people with fibromyalgia. Question: What is the main idea of the passage?

Dissociative Identity Disorder: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to “bring out” the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a “genuine” illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a “genuine” mental illness that is fostered by other people’s influences on a client’s life? No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and “genuine” problem. Question: What is the best summary for the passage?