HESI A2 Reading Comprehension Practice Quizzes

Nuclear waste remains toxic for over 300,000 years. The Waste Isolation Pilot Project (WIPP) is 2,000 feet under New Mexico desert bedrock. Its tunnels are to contain the military’s most dangerous nuclear waste. When the site is full, the caverns will be collapsed and sealed with soil and concrete. 25-foot granite columns will designate boundaries around four square miles. The perimeter will contain a wall of earth. In addition to global archives, layer upon layer of rooms will hold information about the dangers contained, instructing that no one disturbs WIPP contents for at least 10,000 years. But in the distant future, current languages are likely to become obsolete. Alternative energies are desperately needed to eliminate the need for wastes that impact people and the environment for millennia. Why does the author include the detail “current languages are likely to become obsolete” in the paragraph?

It is easier than ever to spend an excessive amount of time looking at screens. Common sense says that overdoing screen time cannot be good for mental or physical health. This notion has gained support from American Heart Association research. They found that American adults spend 10.5 hours per day glued to smartphone, television, or computer screens. Apparently, those from ages 50 to 64 spend the most time connected to electronic media than any other age group. The risk of cardiovascular disease including stroke increases with more time adults spend being sedentary. In fact, almost 9 out of 10 strokes may be preventable by modifying behaviors and limiting sedentary time. Leisure activities involving screen time encroach on physical activity and threaten health. People in all age groups should consider cutting down on these addicting sedentary activities during free time. Why does the author include the detail “In fact, almost 9 out of 10 strokes may be preventable by modifying behaviors and limiting sedentary time” in the paragraph?

The Making of a Referee Most sports fans would probably agree that athletes face excruciatingly difficult challenges on and off the playing field, ranging from daily practices to lengthy interviews with news outlets. Psychologists, on the other hand, would likely argue that referees put up with some of the worst circumstances, especially when die-hard fans disagree with their decisions. After studying the behavior of both fans and referees, British researchers used a non-experimental study to observe the decision-making skills of referees in relation to their physical attributes. Is it possible to understand whether a referee is more strict based on his or her physique? The results may be surprising. The first step in the experiment was to reach out to the appropriate demographic (soccer fans living in Great Britain) in order to understand the general stereotypes surrounding referees on the soccer field. Based on these survey results, most participants associated shorter stature with referees who were thought to perform badly on the soccer field. That is, shorter referees were understood to be the most likely to make punitive decisions during the game when compared to their taller peers. Once these results were attained, researchers analyzed 61 soccer referees from four different English professional leagues between the ages of 26 and 53, along with an average height of 1.76 meters. Scientists used a correlational research scheme for their experiment in order to focus on the statistical relationship between the two variables without having to change an independent variable. In other words, they explored the relationship between the height of referees and their disciplinary decisions towards athletes on the field in a given soccer season. Specifically, the punitive decisions involved the number of times a referee distributed penalties in the form of yellow cards, which signify a cautionary measure, and red cards, which result in a player’s dismissal from the field. Although the experiment did not show a correlation between a referee’s height and the number of fouls given throughout a season, it yielded interesting results in terms of the distribution of yellow and red cards. On a general level, researchers found a correlation between shorter stature and the amount of yellow and red cards given to soccer players. However, it is important to note that these results are also dependent on the level of each of the four professional leagues that were taken into consideration. As such, higher leagues contained taller referees who typically gave out a similar amount of red cards as shorter referees. While these findings may be fascinating to athletes and sports fans alike, they are applicable only to the context of soccer games and do not provide evidence of a connection between stature and punitive behavior on a larger scale. What is the author’s general opinion regarding the results of the study mentioned in the passage?

By using the nanopore-based method, it is now possible to reconstruct extremely long sequences containing hundreds of thousands of base pairs. In an effort to combine new technology with what was previously used in neuroscientific research, an advanced team of researchers from the genomics institute used both the nanopore-based sequencing method and older sequencing technologies to develop a genome map. A genome, in this regard, is the complete set of genes (or genetic material) present in a cell or an organism. As was expected, the team created what is considered to be the most accurate and complete representation of a human genome map. However, there are still some gaps that have not been resolved by recent technological advancements. Which of the following is NOT true, based on the passage?

Underwater UFOs and New Discoveries: Despite the huge differences between the two areas, space exploration can be quite similar to scientific investigation into the deep waters of the ocean. That is, foreign beings that are drastically different from human beings, including plants and even unidentified foreign objects (UFO), can be found both underwater and in outer space. Most recently, in fact, an unidentified object has been discovered 630 meters below Western Australia, deep in the Indian Ocean. Interestingly enough, the finding is more than just any regular object. In fact, it may be the longest animal ever recorded in history. With the help of an underwater robotic research system, scientists from the Western Australian Museum came across a 120 meter-long creature, known to be part of the order siphonophore of the animal kingdom, which contains organisms such as corals and jellyfish. Of course, this deep-sea predator is extremely different from a “typical” sea creature, in that it is made up of jelly-like strings that extend into its various clones in the water. In other words, the creature is able to physically spread itself out and develop multiple rings, similar to a radar system. In fact, researchers have verified that the creature’s outer ring is at least 47 meters long. After a thorough investigation, it was confirmed that the animal is not only enormous but a dangerous predator to its fellow underwater inhabitants as well. The creature’s unique set of rings allows it to capture prey by blocking their escape and subsequently unleashing a series of paralyzing stings. Once a prey has been successfully enveloped within the siphonophore, it is eaten and then quickly digested, a process that allows nutrients to be transferred to each ring. Although scientists were able to identify this specific predator and understand its habits and aspects, research is still being done to pinpoint the exact type of prey on which it survives. However, this was just one of the many groundbreaking discoveries made during the mission. In addition to this surprising finding, the research team also identified more than 30 new underwater species from the exploration. Thanks to the myriad of technological capabilities of the robotic system used in the experiment, Rov SuBastian, the team not only captured visual evidence of each species but also collected specific DNA samples from the animals for further research. This was made possible by an element on the robotic device, which mimicked a toothbrush, and effortlessly scraped the sides of each underwater creature, thereby collecting an adequate amount of DNA. Samples of the surrounding water were also collected in order to examine its pH levels and quality. Scientists hope to utilize these findings to further understand some of the greatest mysteries surrounding marine life. What is the main idea of the second paragraph?

The technique used to process X chromosome findings is considered revolutionary, in that it uses the latest technology for genetic sequencing, i.e. the nanopore-based sequencing method. This technique enables a longer read length of a DNA sequence, which scientists believe to have been the crucial, missing component for understanding the complete sequencing of human DNA. When it comes to DNA sequencing, a read length refers to the number of base pairs sequenced from a single fragment of DNA. Prior to this most recent discovery, read lengths were generally short and nearly identical, which required researchers to piece together numerous segments at a time, similar to completing a difficult jigsaw puzzle. Which of the following is true regarding read lengths?

Is There Anybody Out There? For over fifty years, scientists and those fascinated with outer space have been looking for signs of intelligent life in the vast universe. Although various conspiracy theorists have debated potential sights of unidentified foreign objects and even extra-terrestrial beings, these theories lack scientific evidence. In fact, other than one small signal picked up by a powerful radio telescope in 1977, scientists have not received any communication from neighboring planets. Most scientists have understood this lack of communication as a sign that Earth is the only planet in our solar system that contains existing life forms, but does research support this idea? At first, scientists were open to the idea that living beings may have existed on planets other than Earth. This was because it was initially speculated that the universe could possibly be full of habitable planets conducive to life. However, research regarding temperature shifts on certain planets across time has disproved this theory. Data has shown that four billion years ago, planets such as Venus, Earth, and Mars, could all have been habitable. However, within approximately a billion years from their birth, the temperature changes they experienced eliminated these possibilities. Mars, for instance, became very cold, whereas Venus developed into an extremely hot planet. Thus, even if Mars and Venus were once home to initial life forms, they may not have been able to keep up with the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Once astronomers and astrobiologists understood the reality of atmospheric pressures on other planets, they relied on new theories to shed new light on the matter. They learned that the atmospheres of different planets are quite delicate and that they are not stable enough to support advanced life forms. For a planet to be effectively habitable, it must have strong atmospheric stability, which is achieved through the greenhouse effect, a process that occurs as gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the Sun. Without this possibility, surface temperatures are not suitable for life forms. Of all the planets in the Solar System, Earth has managed to play a leading role in stabilizing its climate. This is why it could not only provide, but also maintain, an environment in which humans could evolve. Since Earth is the only planet known to have this capability, it is highly improbable that the Solar System contains other intelligent life forms that would be able to interact with human beings on Earth. However, this theory does not eliminate the possibility of finding fossilized life forms on other planets. If fossils were to be found on other planets, researchers believe that they would likely only be microbial in nature, further confirming that the atmospheric pressures on different planets would not support advanced life forms. Based on the text, how have scientists come to the conclusion that advanced life forms have probably not existed on other planets?

Nuclear energy and weapons leave behind near-permanent extreme hazards to humans and the environment that can last hundreds of thousands of years. Scientists at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in Northern California yielded an energy burst through a unique nuclear fusion method. The scientists shot light beams from 192 of the largest lasers in the world at a miniscule hydrogen pellet. This produced over 10 quadrillion watts of power in 100 trillionths of a second. That amounts to 1.3 megajoules—10% of the total energy the sun emits onto the earth each second. The reaction gave off 70% of the energy the pellet absorbed from the lasers. The NIF scientists’ goal is a break-even ignition point, so that the pellet emits 100+% of the lasers’ energy. While impressive, the positive impacts of these nuclear fusion tests are unclear. Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?

New Discoveries in DNA Research Nearly two decades after the complete sequencing of human DNA was first published, many gaps still remain when it comes to our knowledge of this important genetic sequence. Thanks to recent experiments completed by an established genomics institute, scientists have been able to reconstruct the complete sequence of a crucial, single human chromosome: the X chromosome. These findings are of fundamental importance for those who study genomics, which is the branch of molecular biology concerned with genome mapping, and give scientists an opportunity to decipher these fundamental structures. Which of the following is true based on the passage?

In many African cultures, the African Elephant is a revered animal symbolizing strength and power. Praised for its longevity throughout history despite facing difficult obstacles, it is considered to be the largest terrestrial animal in the world. Despite its favorable reputation, this species has long been at risk of becoming extinct for many reasons, including but not limited to illegal poaching and habitat loss. With only 400,000 specimens surviving across the continent, conservationists are taking extra precautions when it comes to preserving these wild animals. However, they have recently been confronted with an unprecedented situation resulting in a loss of nearly 400 elephants without any known cause. What is the meaning of the word “revered” as it is used in the paragraph?

Researchers have silenced schizophrenia- and autism-linked genes in the mouse thalamus. The thalamus is the large mass of grey matter in the brain that acts as a hub to transport information to other brain regions. When these genes were suppressed, the mice’s thalamus neurons became more excitable, causing memory problems to surface. The University of Texas at Austin’s assistant professor of neurology and pediatrics Audrey Brumback noted, “It’s exciting to see how different genetic changes can converge onto the same circuits in the brain and even onto the same physiological mechanism.” Lead investigator Guoping Feng says that for “every phenotype or symptom… there’s a particular circuit responsible.” Matching symptoms and behaviors to their respective brain regions could lead to groundbreaking targeted autism and schizophrenia treatments with fewer side effects.

U.S. government corruption is pervasive and a cause for deep concern. Revelations about financial conflicts of interest in Congress are shocking, especially in light of unprecedented circumstances during the COVID pandemic. A new study exposed that over one-third of Congress members held personal investments in the healthcare industry. The median total value of holdings per member of Congress came to over $43,000. Some of these Congresspeople were simultaneously on healthcare committees. Multiple Congresspeople on healthcare committees and subcommittees held hundreds of thousands of dollars in healthcare industry assets. Matthew McCoy, Ph.D., assistant professor of Medical Ethics and Health Policy at UPenn, rightly calls for holding Congress to “a higher standard and [expecting] that they divest from assets in industries directly affected by their committee work to preserve the integrity of their policy-making.” What is the author’s purpose for writing this paragraph?

Beyond the benefits of physical activity, it is neurologically crucial for children and teens to spend time outside in nature. A long-term London study measured the effects of foliage on the development of 3,568 children from 9 to 15. Spending more time near woodlands was associated with improved mental health and cognitive performance in adolescence. Children who spent time around natural environments like rivers, grasslands, and lakes did not experience the same positive cognitive effects. The London study echoes epidemiological findings from the United States and Denmark. These national findings show that children in residential areas interspersed with green spaces are at lower risk for mental health problems later in life. For developing minds, 30-60 minutes outside during recess is not sufficient. Children should get substantial exposure to parks with abundant nature and greenery. What is the author’s purpose for writing this paragraph?

Is There Anybody Out There? For over fifty years, scientists and those fascinated with outer space have been looking for signs of intelligent life in the vast universe. Although various conspiracy theorists have debated potential sights of unidentified foreign objects and even extra-terrestrial beings, these theories lack scientific evidence. In fact, other than one small signal picked up by a powerful radio telescope in 1977, scientists have not received any communication from neighboring planets. Most scientists have understood this lack of communication as a sign that Earth is the only planet in our solar system that contains existing life forms, but does research support this idea? At first, scientists were open to the idea that living beings may have existed on planets other than Earth. This was because it was initially speculated that the universe could possibly be full of habitable planets conducive to life. However, research regarding temperature shifts on certain planets across time has disproved this theory. Data has shown that four billion years ago, planets such as Venus, Earth, and Mars, could all have been habitable. However, within approximately a billion years from their birth, the temperature changes they experienced eliminated these possibilities. Mars, for instance, became very cold, whereas Venus developed into an extremely hot planet. Thus, even if Mars and Venus were once home to initial life forms, they may not have been able to keep up with the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Once astronomers and astrobiologists understood the reality of atmospheric pressures on other planets, they relied on new theories to shed new light on the matter. They learned that the atmospheres of different planets are quite delicate and that they are not stable enough to support advanced life forms. For a planet to be effectively habitable, it must have strong atmospheric stability, which is achieved through the greenhouse effect, a process that occurs as gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the Sun. Without this possibility, surface temperatures are not suitable for life forms. Of all the planets in the Solar System, Earth has managed to play a leading role in stabilizing its climate. This is why it could not only provide, but also maintain, an environment in which humans could evolve. Since Earth is the only planet known to have this capability, it is highly improbable that the Solar System contains other intelligent life forms that would be able to interact with human beings on Earth. However, this theory does not eliminate the possibility of finding fossilized life forms on other planets. If fossils were to be found on other planets, researchers believe that they would likely only be microbial in nature, further confirming that the atmospheric pressures on different planets would not support advanced life forms. Which of the following supports the idea that Earth is likely the only planet in the Solar System with sustainable life forms?

Underwater UFOs and New Discoveries: Despite the huge differences between the two areas, space exploration can be quite similar to scientific investigation into the deep waters of the ocean. That is, foreign beings that are drastically different from human beings, including plants and even unidentified foreign objects (UFO), can be found both underwater and in outer space. Most recently, in fact, an unidentified object has been discovered 630 meters below Western Australia, deep in the Indian Ocean. Interestingly enough, the finding is more than just any regular object. In fact, it may be the longest animal ever recorded in history. With the help of an underwater robotic research system, scientists from the Western Australian Museum came across a 120 meter-long creature, known to be part of the order siphonophore of the animal kingdom, which contains organisms such as corals and jellyfish. Of course, this deep-sea predator is extremely different from a “typical” sea creature, in that it is made up of jelly-like strings that extend into its various clones in the water. In other words, the creature is able to physically spread itself out and develop multiple rings, similar to a radar system. In fact, researchers have verified that the creature’s outer ring is at least 47 meters long. After a thorough investigation, it was confirmed that the animal is not only enormous but a dangerous predator to its fellow underwater inhabitants as well. The creature’s unique set of rings allows it to capture prey by blocking their escape and subsequently unleashing a series of paralyzing stings. Once a prey has been successfully enveloped within the siphonophore, it is eaten and then quickly digested, a process that allows nutrients to be transferred to each ring. Although scientists were able to identify this specific predator and understand its habits and aspects, research is still being done to pinpoint the exact type of prey on which it survives. However, this was just one of the many groundbreaking discoveries made during the mission. In addition to this surprising finding, the research team also identified more than 30 new underwater species from the exploration. Thanks to the myriad of technological capabilities of the robotic system used in the experiment, Rov SuBastian, the team not only captured visual evidence of each species but also collected specific DNA samples from the animals for further research. This was made possible by an element on the robotic device, which mimicked a toothbrush, and effortlessly scraped the sides of each underwater creature, thereby collecting an adequate amount of DNA. Samples of the surrounding water were also collected in order to examine its pH levels and quality. Scientists hope to utilize these findings to further understand some of the greatest mysteries surrounding marine life. What is the main idea of the passage?

Underwater UFOs and New Discoveries: Despite the huge differences between the two areas, space exploration can be quite similar to scientific investigation into the deep waters of the ocean. That is, foreign beings that are drastically different from human beings, including plants and even unidentified foreign objects (UFO), can be found both underwater and in outer space. Most recently, in fact, an unidentified object has been discovered 630 meters below Western Australia, deep in the Indian Ocean. Interestingly enough, the finding is more than just any regular object. In fact, it may be the longest animal ever recorded in history. With the help of an underwater robotic research system, scientists from the Western Australian Museum came across a 120 meter-long creature, known to be part of the order siphonophore of the animal kingdom, which contains organisms such as corals and jellyfish. Of course, this deep-sea predator is extremely different from a “typical” sea creature, in that it is made up of jelly-like strings that extend into its various clones in the water. In other words, the creature is able to physically spread itself out and develop multiple rings, similar to a radar system. In fact, researchers have verified that the creature’s outer ring is at least 47 meters long. After a thorough investigation, it was confirmed that the animal is not only enormous but a dangerous predator to its fellow underwater inhabitants as well. The creature’s unique set of rings allows it to capture prey by blocking their escape and subsequently unleashing a series of paralyzing stings. Once a prey has been successfully enveloped within the siphonophore, it is eaten and then quickly digested, a process that allows nutrients to be transferred to each ring. Although scientists were able to identify this specific predator and understand its habits and aspects, research is still being done to pinpoint the exact type of prey on which it survives. However, this was just one of the many groundbreaking discoveries made during the mission. In addition to this surprising finding, the research team also identified more than 30 new underwater species from the exploration. Thanks to the myriad of technological capabilities of the robotic system used in the experiment, Rov SuBastian, the team not only captured visual evidence of each species but also collected specific DNA samples from the animals for further research. This was made possible by an element on the robotic device, which mimicked a toothbrush, and effortlessly scraped the sides of each underwater creature, thereby collecting an adequate amount of DNA. Samples of the surrounding water were also collected in order to examine its pH levels and quality. Scientists hope to utilize these findings to further understand some of the greatest mysteries surrounding marine life. What is the main idea of the third paragraph?

The Making of a Referee Most sports fans would probably agree that athletes face excruciatingly difficult challenges on and off the playing field, ranging from daily practices to lengthy interviews with news outlets. Psychologists, on the other hand, would likely argue that referees put up with some of the worst circumstances, especially when die-hard fans disagree with their decisions. After studying the behavior of both fans and referees, British researchers used a non-experimental study to observe the decision-making skills of referees in relation to their physical attributes. Is it possible to understand whether a referee is more strict based on his or her physique? The results may be surprising. The first step in the experiment was to reach out to the appropriate demographic (soccer fans living in Great Britain) in order to understand the general stereotypes surrounding referees on the soccer field. Based on these survey results, most participants associated shorter stature with referees who were thought to perform badly on the soccer field. That is, shorter referees were understood to be the most likely to make punitive decisions during the game when compared to their taller peers. Once these results were attained, researchers analyzed 61 soccer referees from four different English professional leagues between the ages of 26 and 53, along with an average height of 1.76 meters. Scientists used a correlational research scheme for their experiment in order to focus on the statistical relationship between the two variables without having to change an independent variable. In other words, they explored the relationship between the height of referees and their disciplinary decisions towards athletes on the field in a given soccer season. Specifically, the punitive decisions involved the number of times a referee distributed penalties in the form of yellow cards, which signify a cautionary measure, and red cards, which result in a player’s dismissal from the field. Although the experiment did not show a correlation between a referee’s height and the number of fouls given throughout a season, it yielded interesting results in terms of the distribution of yellow and red cards. On a general level, researchers found a correlation between shorter stature and the amount of yellow and red cards given to soccer players. However, it is important to note that these results are also dependent on the level of each of the four professional leagues that were taken into consideration. As such, higher leagues contained taller referees who typically gave out a similar amount of red cards as shorter referees. While these findings may be fascinating to athletes and sports fans alike, they are applicable only to the context of soccer games and do not provide evidence of a connection between stature and punitive behavior on a larger scale. Which supporting detail is an example of the author’s opinion, rather than fact?

A “Clean” Replacement For Bees With the recent decline of bees and bumblebees, botanists have teamed up with scientists to answer a question that seems to become more important as time goes on: will it ever be possible to replace bees? The answers to this question may ultimately decide how the environment will be impacted once the likely extinction of bees takes place. Although it would be hard to replicate the intense labor of these life-sustaining pollinators, new technology may assist in finding alternative, practical solutions with the use of drones and a household cleaning supply: soap! Since 2017, researchers at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Japan have started replicating the necessary components for the fruitful pollination of various plants. They have discovered that employing the use of drones could effectively administer droplets of pollen to plants, similar to how bees would collect and distribute pollen in natural circumstances. Through numerous efforts of trial and error, however, the scientists have realized that even the smallest drones (measuring around four centimeters) could potentially damage the delicate nature of plants. Despite the rough, metallic exteriors of drones, researchers discovered a way to successfully utilize them in the pollination process. Instead of instructing the drones to drop pollen directly into each plant, they would release soft soap bubbles instead, which would safely encase the pollen and open upon contact with the plant. In order to develop a balanced mixture of all ingredients, pollen grains were first mixed with a nutrient-enriched soap solution that contained a low level of plant toxicity. The soap’s components were of maximum importance in this matter, since they could drastically alter the plants’ absorption of each pollen granule. Once the chemical levels of the soapy mixture were finalized, testing on actual Japanese pear plants began. After the drone dispersed the soap suds, each flower came into contact with approximately 2,000 granules of pollen. The team waited nearly two weeks for extremely positive results; the artificial process had provided as many fruitful results as would have been attained with natural pollination. Given the fact that most pollination of pear and apple trees is done by hand in Japan, this method would allow many more plants to be fertilized with the same amount of pollen in drastically less time. Although initial tests have produced positive results, the weather is likely to have a negative impact on the method’s immediate success. As of now, the bubbles’ efficiency is largely dependent on the weather, and could “pop” at inopportune times due to strong gusts of wind and even the slightest rain showers. Researchers believe that these problems could be solved with technology and robotic engineering programs. With more research and development, they hope to design an automated system that could map out the most logical routes based on daily weather forecasting and growth patterns. While these drones were established to solve a potential problem of extinction, they may help cut back costs of labor involved in fertilization. Based on the information regarding soap bubbles, what can be inferred about their presence in the pollination process?

A “Clean” Replacement For Bees With the recent decline of bees and bumblebees, botanists have teamed up with scientists to answer a question that seems to become more important as time goes on: will it ever be possible to replace bees? The answers to this question may ultimately decide how the environment will be impacted once the likely extinction of bees takes place. Although it would be hard to replicate the intense labor of these life-sustaining pollinators, new technology may assist in finding alternative, practical solutions with the use of drones and a household cleaning supply: soap! Since 2017, researchers at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Japan have started replicating the necessary components for the fruitful pollination of various plants. They have discovered that employing the use of drones could effectively administer droplets of pollen to plants, similar to how bees would collect and distribute pollen in natural circumstances. Through numerous efforts of trial and error, however, the scientists have realized that even the smallest drones (measuring around four centimeters) could potentially damage the delicate nature of plants. Despite the rough, metallic exteriors of drones, researchers discovered a way to successfully utilize them in the pollination process. Instead of instructing the drones to drop pollen directly into each plant, they would release soft soap bubbles instead, which would safely encase the pollen and open upon contact with the plant. In order to develop a balanced mixture of all ingredients, pollen grains were first mixed with a nutrient-enriched soap solution that contained a low level of plant toxicity. The soap’s components were of maximum importance in this matter, since they could drastically alter the plants’ absorption of each pollen granule. Once the chemical levels of the soapy mixture were finalized, testing on actual Japanese pear plants began. After the drone dispersed the soap suds, each flower came into contact with approximately 2,000 granules of pollen. The team waited nearly two weeks for extremely positive results; the artificial process had provided as many fruitful results as would have been attained with natural pollination. Given the fact that most pollination of pear and apple trees is done by hand in Japan, this method would allow many more plants to be fertilized with the same amount of pollen in drastically less time. Although initial tests have produced positive results, the weather is likely to have a negative impact on the method’s immediate success. As of now, the bubbles’ efficiency is largely dependent on the weather, and could “pop” at inopportune times due to strong gusts of wind and even the slightest rain showers. Researchers believe that these problems could be solved with technology and robotic engineering programs. With more research and development, they hope to design an automated system that could map out the most logical routes based on daily weather forecasting and growth patterns. While these drones were established to solve a potential problem of extinction, they may help cut back costs of labor involved in fertilization. Based on the information in the passage, which of the following inferences can be made regarding the sole usage of drones in plant pollination?

In many African cultures, the African Elephant is a revered animal symbolizing strength and power. Praised for its longevity throughout history despite facing difficult obstacles, it is considered to be the largest terrestrial animal in the world. Despite its favorable reputation, this species has long been at risk of becoming extinct for many reasons, including but not limited to illegal poaching and habitat loss. With only 400,000 specimens surviving across the continent, conservationists are taking extra precautions when it comes to preserving these wild animals. However, they have recently been confronted with an unprecedented situation resulting in a loss of nearly 400 elephants without any known cause. Which of the following is a synonym for the word “specimens” as it is used in the paragraph?

Humans last landed on the moon in 1972. NASA formerly planned to send astronauts to the moon again by 2024. Confirming the doubts voiced by NASA’s acting administrator as well as independent experts, the mission will not be possible within that timeline. There are several reasons, one of which is the delay in developing appropriate space suits. NASA has been working on the new spacesuits for 14 years, spending $420 million on development. An estimate from the inspector general predicts the spacesuits will be ready in April 2025 at the earliest with $625 million more in costs. The report also cites a lack of funding, technical challenges, and COVID-related disruptions. The inspector general reported delays in progress on the new Space Launch System rocket. Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?

The Choir of the Rainforest: Heard But Not Seen Some of the most popular sounds used for relaxation purposes include white noise and sounds of the tropical rainforest. When it comes to the latter, however, the most distinct chirping noise is made by a group of insects that is easily heard but almost impossible to spot with the human eye. Insects in the Tettigoniidae family, otherwise known as “bush crickets,” are aesthetically similar to long-horned grasshoppers. Their vocal capabilities, however, are extremely unique and serve an important biological purpose. Common insects in the Tettigoniidae family, such as crickets, are easily spotted in parks and neighborhoods. But if you were to walk through a lush rainforest, you probably would not be able to spot bush crickets since they are easily camouflaged within the abundance of green leaves on enormous trees. This specific trait helps these crickets protect themselves from predators, all the while communicating with each other across large distances. For this reason, bush crickets are known as the “invisible choir” of the rainforest, discreetly providing a clear soundtrack to nature’s wonders. According to a team of researchers in the Barro Colorado Island, located in the middle of the Panama Canal, bush crickets unleash a series of distinct howls throughout the night, with the highest point occurring right before dawn. These sounds are capable of being heard up to five kilometers away. Interestingly enough, the noises made by these insects seem to be in harmony with each other and make up a deliberate communication system. In fact, the survival of tropical species depends largely on the efficiency of the loud, nightly howls and unique chirping noises of these insects. After observing this species for decades, researchers have proven that male bush crickets not only utilize the sounds to find suitable mates but are also responsible for making up a majority of them. While their female counterparts may sometimes respond to these calls with separate sounds and calls, male bush crickets are the most prominent singers of the so-called choir, responsible for innumerable howls each night. The intensity of the sounds is made possible by the speed at which the crickets rub their wings together. Additionally, each wing contains a set of minuscule “teeth,” similar to a fine-tooth comb, which vibrates and further extends the reverberation throughout the entire rainforest. In an effort to distinguish the various mating calls and additional sounds of these insects, researchers in Panama have recently recorded the voices of over 60 species in the Tettigoniidae family. With these recordings, scientists hope to develop an algorithm that will help analyze the distinct sounds and eventually match each sound with its specific species. For the time being, though, one thing is clear: there is truly more than what meets the eye—and ear—when it comes to the soundtrack of the rainforest. Which of the following ideas can be inferred from the passage?

When conservationists working in Botswana arrived in the Okavango Delta, they noticed something that they had never seen before. Through their exploration of the area, they quickly came into contact with nearly 200 dead elephants, a number that soared to over 350 in just a few short days. According to the lead conservationist of a local park rescue service, the most disturbing detail was the unknown cause of death. Since this discovery, researchers have been looking into possible explanations, and have created a few theories that seek to explain the strange phenomenon that could eliminate the entire species forever. Which word would best replace the word “theories” as it is used in the paragraph?

Is There Anybody Out There? For over fifty years, scientists and those fascinated with outer space have been looking for signs of intelligent life in the vast universe. Although various conspiracy theorists have debated potential sights of unidentified foreign objects and even extra-terrestrial beings, these theories lack scientific evidence. In fact, other than one small signal picked up by a powerful radio telescope in 1977, scientists have not received any communication from neighboring planets. Most scientists have understood this lack of communication as a sign that Earth is the only planet in our solar system that contains existing life forms, but does research support this idea? At first, scientists were open to the idea that living beings may have existed on planets other than Earth. This was because it was initially speculated that the universe could possibly be full of habitable planets conducive to life. However, research regarding temperature shifts on certain planets across time has disproved this theory. Data has shown that four billion years ago, planets such as Venus, Earth, and Mars, could all have been habitable. However, within approximately a billion years from their birth, the temperature changes they experienced eliminated these possibilities. Mars, for instance, became very cold, whereas Venus developed into an extremely hot planet. Thus, even if Mars and Venus were once home to initial life forms, they may not have been able to keep up with the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Once astronomers and astrobiologists understood the reality of atmospheric pressures on other planets, they relied on new theories to shed new light on the matter. They learned that the atmospheres of different planets are quite delicate and that they are not stable enough to support advanced life forms. For a planet to be effectively habitable, it must have strong atmospheric stability, which is achieved through the greenhouse effect, a process that occurs as gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the Sun. Without this possibility, surface temperatures are not suitable for life forms. Of all the planets in the Solar System, Earth has managed to play a leading role in stabilizing its climate. This is why it could not only provide, but also maintain, an environment in which humans could evolve. Since Earth is the only planet known to have this capability, it is highly improbable that the Solar System contains other intelligent life forms that would be able to interact with human beings on Earth. However, this theory does not eliminate the possibility of finding fossilized life forms on other planets. If fossils were to be found on other planets, researchers believe that they would likely only be microbial in nature, further confirming that the atmospheric pressures on different planets would not support advanced life forms. Which of the following details supports the counterargument that life could be found on other planets?

Understanding Stress Mechanisms Meeting deadlines, presenting important projects, or balancing professional and personal priorities are just a few ways that people experience stress on a daily basis. Despite the fact that most of these stress-inducing activities seem to stem from outside factors, our internal response to stress plays an important role in managing the ebbs and flows of life. In fact, the brain has an excellent way of establishing a resilient response system, but most of us probably do not realize the power that the mind can have over stressful situations. When confronted with a difficult situation, the mind activates its very own defense system which starts from the most “instinctive” zone of the brain: the hippocampus and the amygdala. These parts of the brain are extremely important structures. The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for declarative or episodic memory. The two amygdala, on the other hand, are located close to the hippocampus and are essential for the input and processing of emotion. Thus, these two regions of the brain interact during emotional events, in order to translate the events into outcomes. For example, in an anxiety-inducing situation, the two structures would likely unleash a series of hormones that would generate negative emotions, such as anxiety. However, responses to stress involve much more than just the hippocampus and the amygdala. Specifically, when it comes to hormones, another important factor is the reaction of the pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain. This gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland”, since it is known for controlling the output of most hormones in the body. For this reason, it interacts with the responses from the hippocampus and the amygdala. Soon after the pituitary gland takes action, the adrenal glands produce cortisol, a hormone that keeps the body in a state of alertness. Prominent markers of this state include an increased heartbeat, profuse sweating, and heavy breathing. Finally, these actions trigger the glucose reserved in the liver to be released into the bloodstream, providing a quick dose of energy and preparing a person for an acute stress response, which is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. Although it is common to attribute these dramatic responses to stress in cases of physical harm, such as getting into a car accident, the body maintains this reaction even in instances of emotional stress. As such, it would not be unusual for someone with a fear of public speaking to go through the same emotions, or experience an anxiety-induced physical state, before delivering a speech in front of a large crowd. After all, the brain is concerned with protecting the body from all types of uncomfortable situations. What is the best way to summarize the first paragraph?

The Choir of the Rainforest: Heard But Not Seen Some of the most popular sounds used for relaxation purposes include white noise and sounds of the tropical rainforest. When it comes to the latter, however, the most distinct chirping noise is made by a group of insects that is easily heard but almost impossible to spot with the human eye. Insects in the Tettigoniidae family, otherwise known as “bush crickets,” are aesthetically similar to long-horned grasshoppers. Their vocal capabilities, however, are extremely unique and serve an important biological purpose. Common insects in the Tettigoniidae family, such as crickets, are easily spotted in parks and neighborhoods. But if you were to walk through a lush rainforest, you probably would not be able to spot bush crickets since they are easily camouflaged within the abundance of green leaves on enormous trees. This specific trait helps these crickets protect themselves from predators, all the while communicating with each other across large distances. For this reason, bush crickets are known as the “invisible choir” of the rainforest, discreetly providing a clear soundtrack to nature’s wonders. According to a team of researchers in the Barro Colorado Island, located in the middle of the Panama Canal, bush crickets unleash a series of distinct howls throughout the night, with the highest point occurring right before dawn. These sounds are capable of being heard up to five kilometers away. Interestingly enough, the noises made by these insects seem to be in harmony with each other and make up a deliberate communication system. In fact, the survival of tropical species depends largely on the efficiency of the loud, nightly howls and unique chirping noises of these insects. After observing this species for decades, researchers have proven that male bush crickets not only utilize the sounds to find suitable mates but are also responsible for making up a majority of them. While their female counterparts may sometimes respond to these calls with separate sounds and calls, male bush crickets are the most prominent singers of the so-called choir, responsible for innumerable howls each night. The intensity of the sounds is made possible by the speed at which the crickets rub their wings together. Additionally, each wing contains a set of minuscule “teeth,” similar to a fine-tooth comb, which vibrates and further extends the reverberation throughout the entire rainforest. In an effort to distinguish the various mating calls and additional sounds of these insects, researchers in Panama have recently recorded the voices of over 60 species in the Tettigoniidae family. With these recordings, scientists hope to develop an algorithm that will help analyze the distinct sounds and eventually match each sound with its specific species. For the time being, though, one thing is clear: there is truly more than what meets the eye—and ear—when it comes to the soundtrack of the rainforest. Which of the following inferences can be made from the passage?

A “Clean” Replacement For Bees With the recent decline of bees and bumblebees, botanists have teamed up with scientists to answer a question that seems to become more important as time goes on: will it ever be possible to replace bees? The answers to this question may ultimately decide how the environment will be impacted once the likely extinction of bees takes place. Although it would be hard to replicate the intense labor of these life-sustaining pollinators, new technology may assist in finding alternative, practical solutions with the use of drones and a household cleaning supply: soap! Since 2017, researchers at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Japan have started replicating the necessary components for the fruitful pollination of various plants. They have discovered that employing the use of drones could effectively administer droplets of pollen to plants, similar to how bees would collect and distribute pollen in natural circumstances. Through numerous efforts of trial and error, however, the scientists have realized that even the smallest drones (measuring around four centimeters) could potentially damage the delicate nature of plants. Despite the rough, metallic exteriors of drones, researchers discovered a way to successfully utilize them in the pollination process. Instead of instructing the drones to drop pollen directly into each plant, they would release soft soap bubbles instead, which would safely encase the pollen and open upon contact with the plant. In order to develop a balanced mixture of all ingredients, pollen grains were first mixed with a nutrient-enriched soap solution that contained a low level of plant toxicity. The soap’s components were of maximum importance in this matter, since they could drastically alter the plants’ absorption of each pollen granule. Once the chemical levels of the soapy mixture were finalized, testing on actual Japanese pear plants began. After the drone dispersed the soap suds, each flower came into contact with approximately 2,000 granules of pollen. The team waited nearly two weeks for extremely positive results; the artificial process had provided as many fruitful results as would have been attained with natural pollination. Given the fact that most pollination of pear and apple trees is done by hand in Japan, this method would allow many more plants to be fertilized with the same amount of pollen in drastically less time. Although initial tests have produced positive results, the weather is likely to have a negative impact on the method’s immediate success. As of now, the bubbles’ efficiency is largely dependent on the weather, and could “pop” at inopportune times due to strong gusts of wind and even the slightest rain showers. Researchers believe that these problems could be solved with technology and robotic engineering programs. With more research and development, they hope to design an automated system that could map out the most logical routes based on daily weather forecasting and growth patterns. While these drones were established to solve a potential problem of extinction, they may help cut back costs of labor involved in fertilization. Which of the following conclusions can be drawn about pollination done by hand?

The Choir of the Rainforest: Heard But Not Seen Some of the most popular sounds used for relaxation purposes include white noise and sounds of the tropical rainforest. When it comes to the latter, however, the most distinct chirping noise is made by a group of insects that is easily heard but almost impossible to spot with the human eye. Insects in the Tettigoniidae family, otherwise known as “bush crickets,” are aesthetically similar to long-horned grasshoppers. Their vocal capabilities, however, are extremely unique and serve an important biological purpose. Common insects in the Tettigoniidae family, such as crickets, are easily spotted in parks and neighborhoods. But if you were to walk through a lush rainforest, you probably would not be able to spot bush crickets since they are easily camouflaged within the abundance of green leaves on enormous trees. This specific trait helps these crickets protect themselves from predators, all the while communicating with each other across large distances. For this reason, bush crickets are known as the “invisible choir” of the rainforest, discreetly providing a clear soundtrack to nature’s wonders. According to a team of researchers in the Barro Colorado Island, located in the middle of the Panama Canal, bush crickets unleash a series of distinct howls throughout the night, with the highest point occurring right before dawn. These sounds are capable of being heard up to five kilometers away. Interestingly enough, the noises made by these insects seem to be in harmony with each other and make up a deliberate communication system. In fact, the survival of tropical species depends largely on the efficiency of the loud, nightly howls and unique chirping noises of these insects. After observing this species for decades, researchers have proven that male bush crickets not only utilize the sounds to find suitable mates but are also responsible for making up a majority of them. While their female counterparts may sometimes respond to these calls with separate sounds and calls, male bush crickets are the most prominent singers of the so-called choir, responsible for innumerable howls each night. The intensity of the sounds is made possible by the speed at which the crickets rub their wings together. Additionally, each wing contains a set of minuscule “teeth,” similar to a fine-tooth comb, which vibrates and further extends the reverberation throughout the entire rainforest. In an effort to distinguish the various mating calls and additional sounds of these insects, researchers in Panama have recently recorded the voices of over 60 species in the Tettigoniidae family. With these recordings, scientists hope to develop an algorithm that will help analyze the distinct sounds and eventually match each sound with its specific species. For the time being, though, one thing is clear: there is truly more than what meets the eye—and ear—when it comes to the soundtrack of the rainforest. Which of the following ideas can be inferred from the passage?

The Making of a Referee Most sports fans would probably agree that athletes face excruciatingly difficult challenges on and off the playing field, ranging from daily practices to lengthy interviews with news outlets. Psychologists, on the other hand, would likely argue that referees put up with some of the worst circumstances, especially when die-hard fans disagree with their decisions. After studying the behavior of both fans and referees, British researchers used a non-experimental study to observe the decision-making skills of referees in relation to their physical attributes. Is it possible to understand whether a referee is more strict based on his or her physique? The results may be surprising. The first step in the experiment was to reach out to the appropriate demographic (soccer fans living in Great Britain) in order to understand the general stereotypes surrounding referees on the soccer field. Based on these survey results, most participants associated shorter stature with referees who were thought to perform badly on the soccer field. That is, shorter referees were understood to be the most likely to make punitive decisions during the game when compared to their taller peers. Once these results were attained, researchers analyzed 61 soccer referees from four different English professional leagues between the ages of 26 and 53, along with an average height of 1.76 meters. Scientists used a correlational research scheme for their experiment in order to focus on the statistical relationship between the two variables without having to change an independent variable. In other words, they explored the relationship between the height of referees and their disciplinary decisions towards athletes on the field in a given soccer season. Specifically, the punitive decisions involved the number of times a referee distributed penalties in the form of yellow cards, which signify a cautionary measure, and red cards, which result in a player’s dismissal from the field. Although the experiment did not show a correlation between a referee’s height and the number of fouls given throughout a season, it yielded interesting results in terms of the distribution of yellow and red cards. On a general level, researchers found a correlation between shorter stature and the amount of yellow and red cards given to soccer players. However, it is important to note that these results are also dependent on the level of each of the four professional leagues that were taken into consideration. As such, higher leagues contained taller referees who typically gave out a similar amount of red cards as shorter referees. While these findings may be fascinating to athletes and sports fans alike, they are applicable only to the context of soccer games and do not provide evidence of a connection between stature and punitive behavior on a larger scale. Which supporting detail is an example of opinion, rather than fact?

Understanding Stress Mechanisms Meeting deadlines, presenting important projects, or balancing professional and personal priorities are just a few ways that people experience stress on a daily basis. Despite the fact that most of these stress-inducing activities seem to stem from outside factors, our internal response to stress plays an important role in managing the ebbs and flows of life. In fact, the brain has an excellent way of establishing a resilient response system, but most of us probably do not realize the power that the mind can have over stressful situations. When confronted with a difficult situation, the mind activates its very own defense system which starts from the most “instinctive” zone of the brain: the hippocampus and the amygdala. These parts of the brain are extremely important structures. The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for declarative or episodic memory. The two amygdala, on the other hand, are located close to the hippocampus and are essential for the input and processing of emotion. Thus, these two regions of the brain interact during emotional events, in order to translate the events into outcomes. For example, in an anxiety-inducing situation, the two structures would likely unleash a series of hormones that would generate negative emotions, such as anxiety. However, responses to stress involve much more than just the hippocampus and the amygdala. Specifically, when it comes to hormones, another important factor is the reaction of the pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain. This gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland”, since it is known for controlling the output of most hormones in the body. For this reason, it interacts with the responses from the hippocampus and the amygdala. Soon after the pituitary gland takes action, the adrenal glands produce cortisol, a hormone that keeps the body in a state of alertness. Prominent markers of this state include an increased heartbeat, profuse sweating, and heavy breathing. Finally, these actions trigger the glucose reserved in the liver to be released into the bloodstream, providing a quick dose of energy and preparing a person for an acute stress response, which is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. Although it is common to attribute these dramatic responses to stress in cases of physical harm, such as getting into a car accident, the body maintains this reaction even in instances of emotional stress. As such, it would not be unusual for someone with a fear of public speaking to go through the same emotions, or experience an anxiety-induced physical state, before delivering a speech in front of a large crowd. After all, the brain is concerned with protecting the body from all types of uncomfortable situations. Which statement best summarizes the third paragraph?

Understanding Stress Mechanisms Meeting deadlines, presenting important projects, or balancing professional and personal priorities are just a few ways that people experience stress on a daily basis. Despite the fact that most of these stress-inducing activities seem to stem from outside factors, our internal response to stress plays an important role in managing the ebbs and flows of life. In fact, the brain has an excellent way of establishing a resilient response system, but most of us probably do not realize the power that the mind can have over stressful situations. When confronted with a difficult situation, the mind activates its very own defense system which starts from the most “instinctive” zone of the brain: the hippocampus and the amygdala. These parts of the brain are extremely important structures. The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for declarative or episodic memory. The two amygdala, on the other hand, are located close to the hippocampus and are essential for the input and processing of emotion. Thus, these two regions of the brain interact during emotional events, in order to translate the events into outcomes. For example, in an anxiety-inducing situation, the two structures would likely unleash a series of hormones that would generate negative emotions, such as anxiety. However, responses to stress involve much more than just the hippocampus and the amygdala. Specifically, when it comes to hormones, another important factor is the reaction of the pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain. This gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland”, since it is known for controlling the output of most hormones in the body. For this reason, it interacts with the responses from the hippocampus and the amygdala. Soon after the pituitary gland takes action, the adrenal glands produce cortisol, a hormone that keeps the body in a state of alertness. Prominent markers of this state include an increased heartbeat, profuse sweating, and heavy breathing. Finally, these actions trigger the glucose reserved in the liver to be released into the bloodstream, providing a quick dose of energy and preparing a person for an acute stress response, which is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. Although it is common to attribute these dramatic responses to stress in cases of physical harm, such as getting into a car accident, the body maintains this reaction even in instances of emotional stress. As such, it would not be unusual for someone with a fear of public speaking to go through the same emotions, or experience an anxiety-induced physical state, before delivering a speech in front of a large crowd. After all, the brain is concerned with protecting the body from all types of uncomfortable situations. Which statement best summarizes the second paragraph?

Soda Ban: Cigarettes. Alcohol. Drugs. Most people agree that these things should be kept away from children and only consumed by adults in limited quantities, if at all. Is the same thing true for soda? A 20-ounce-bottle of soda has over sixteen teaspoons of sugar in it. This is twice the amount of sugar that the American Heart Association recommends a person should eat in an entire day. Furthermore, this 20-ounce bottle of soda delivers over 200 calories and no nutritive value; soda contains no vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein, or other nutrients. Drinking sodas and other sugary beverages can cause serious health problems. Consuming too many of these sugar-filled beverages may increase your risk for developing Type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease, tooth decay, and certain kinds of cancer. Studies have also shown that people who drink soda tend to develop a condition known as metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a condition characterized by excess abdominal fat, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, high levels of triglycerides, and low levels of HDL cholesterol (commonly referred to as “good cholesterol”). Some places have already taken steps to reduce the amount of soda people consume. In California, for example, cafeterias and vending machines in grade schools can not sell soda. The city of Philadelphia also recently added a tax on sugary beverages, making sodas more expensive to purchase. Soda may taste good, but it is terrible for your health. There should be more bans and taxes to keep people from drinking these harmful beverages. What is the main idea of the passage?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the main idea of the passage?

Is There Anybody Out There? For over fifty years, scientists and those fascinated with outer space have been looking for signs of intelligent life in the vast universe. Although various conspiracy theorists have debated potential sights of unidentified foreign objects and even extra-terrestrial beings, these theories lack scientific evidence. In fact, other than one small signal picked up by a powerful radio telescope in 1977, scientists have not received any communication from neighboring planets. Most scientists have understood this lack of communication as a sign that Earth is the only planet in our solar system that contains existing life forms, but does research support this idea? At first, scientists were open to the idea that living beings may have existed on planets other than Earth. This was because it was initially speculated that the universe could possibly be full of habitable planets conducive to life. However, research regarding temperature shifts on certain planets across time has disproved this theory. Data has shown that four billion years ago, planets such as Venus, Earth, and Mars, could all have been habitable. However, within approximately a billion years from their birth, the temperature changes they experienced eliminated these possibilities. Mars, for instance, became very cold, whereas Venus developed into an extremely hot planet. Thus, even if Mars and Venus were once home to initial life forms, they may not have been able to keep up with the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Once astronomers and astrobiologists understood the reality of atmospheric pressures on other planets, they relied on new theories to shed new light on the matter. They learned that the atmospheres of different planets are quite delicate and that they are not stable enough to support advanced life forms. For a planet to be effectively habitable, it must have strong atmospheric stability, which is achieved through the greenhouse effect, a process that occurs as gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the Sun. Without this possibility, surface temperatures are not suitable for life forms. Of all the planets in the Solar System, Earth has managed to play a leading role in stabilizing its climate. This is why it could not only provide, but also maintain, an environment in which humans could evolve. Since Earth is the only planet known to have this capability, it is highly improbable that the Solar System contains other intelligent life forms that would be able to interact with human beings on Earth. However, this theory does not eliminate the possibility of finding fossilized life forms on other planets. If fossils were to be found on other planets, researchers believe that they would likely only be microbial in nature, further confirming that the atmospheric pressures on different planets would not support advanced life forms. Based on the text, why is it unlikely that scientists will travel to other planets in search of life?

Reaching carbon neutrality in production is vital to slowing and reversing climate change. In a fascinating development, Korean researchers are working on an artificial photosynthesis technology. It mimics natural photosynthesis by harnessing energy from sunlight to convert climate change-fueling carbon dioxide (CO2) into valuable methanol, ethylene, and ethanol. Though the process has been successful in laboratory conditions, more testing is needed to translate artificial photosynthesis technology into practical field applications. Dr. Hyung Suk Oh and Dr. Woong Hee Lee hope to integrate their system with silicon solar cells for use in real, large-scale solar environments. Their work is encouraging. They have reached the highest sunlight-to-compound conversion efficiency yet, at 12.1%, in artificial photosynthesis systems for silicon solar cells. Projects like this should receive increased funding to help neutralize populations’ carbon emissions. What is the purpose of the final sentence in this paragraph?

Forgotten Wildlife What were once considered to be treasured beings in the forests of Madagascar are currently at risk of becoming extinct. Out of 107 species of lemurs, specifically from Madagascar, 103 are now considered endangered. Based on data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), this change was influenced by human behavior, a failing economy, and the rapid change in environmental conditions. As the spread of illegal hunting and trading continues to plague various wildlife species in Africa, the IUCN plans to prevent lemurs from completely disappearing from Earth, but it is not considered an easy task. Which of the following is true, based on the passage?

Preventing Heart Disease: Heart disease is a life-threatening condition that kills millions of people every year. In fact, heart disease is the number one killer of human beings worldwide; over thirty percent of deaths every year are due to some form of cardiovascular disease. Although there are many different types of medications and surgical procedures that can treat heart disease, prevention is the most important factor in reducing the number of deaths. Proper nutrition is important in preventing heart disease. The recommended diet for a healthy heart is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, salt, and refined sugar. The diet should be high in fiber, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Smoking and excessive alcohol consumption should be avoided. Smoking increases the risk for heart disease at least ten-fold, and drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of some fats in the blood and lead to high blood pressure and increase the risk of cardiovascular damage. Lack of physical exercise can also make a person more likely to suffer from heart disease. Participating regularly in aerobic exercise, which can include walking, jogging, dancing, or swimming significantly reduces the risk of heart disease. Another contributor to heart disease is stress. Constant stress can expose your body to persistently elevated levels of the stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline. High levels of these hormones can increase blood pressure and damage artery walls. Engaging in yoga, meditation, or other relaxation techniques can be helpful in reducing stress and lowering the risk of heart disease. Question: What can be inferred from a person with constantly elevated stress levels, according to the passage?

Based on past evidence, leading experts believe that naturally-developing anthrax poisoning may be involved, due to the symptoms elephants experienced prior to their deaths. Most elephants seemed to wander in a circle before collapsing on the ground, which has led scientists to consider the possibility of an unknown pathology attacking their central nervous system. Although a natural poison found in nearby vegetation could be the answer, it is also possible that the elephants came into contact with an unknown virus or bacteria. In any case, scientists must wait for the completed autopsies before ruling out any other ideas. However, they have already started preparing preventative measures in order to protect the endangered African Elephants from another mysterious disaster. Which word would best replace the word “prior” as it is used in the paragraph?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: Which supporting detail is an example of an opinion, rather than factual information?

Interior Secrets of the Pyramids History textbooks are likely to include photographs or illustrated depictions of ancient Egyptian pyramids, showcasing their grandeur and architectural wonder. Can the same be said for authentic depictions of the internal features of these pyramids though? Thanks to a new international mission exploring the various layers of famous pyramids, scientists plan to unravel these “interior design mysteries” through the use of advanced technology. They may even prove that past archaeological exploration projects have not been as extensive as was once imagined. The four pyramids involved in the study include the two pyramids of Giza (Cheops and Chfren) along with the two pyramids of Dahshur, located south of Cairo. Initially, further research devoted to these structures seemed futile, as the 4,500-year-old pyramids have already been explored by experts. However, they have never been investigated using infrared technology, which could allow scientists to discover any additional hidden chambers in the pyramids without using destructive methods. In other words, the international team of researchers will be able to look through each structure using “X-ray vision” for the first time in history! The primary technique in the project will involve directing beams of indirect cosmic rays on the pyramids themselves. When cosmic rays bombard a certain area in the atmosphere, they produce particles known as muons, which have a high ability to traverse matter. Although the properties of muons make them excellent options for “seeing” through the pyramids’ rocks, some of them would still be absorbed by the rocks themselves. To solve this problem, scientists will use tools that are able to detect any voids in the pyramids by analyzing the number of muons that have been blocked by the structure. Past evidence of this technique, used in some pyramids in South America, shows promising results. The new technology will initially be implemented in the Rhomboid Pyramid in Dahshur, which was built by Pharaoh Sneferu approximately 4,600 years ago. The rhomboidal shape of this pyramid includes a double slope, which still puzzles scientists to this day. Most believe that the sloping side was an afterthought in construction or a quick solution to a collapsing wall. In addition to locating potential chambers inside of this pyramid, archaeologists are interested in finding any other clues that will explain the unique shape of its structure. Once testing has been wrapped up in Dahshur, the teams will make their way to Giza and use the technology once more. However, not all historians are onboard with the idea of using technology to explore these last two pyramids. Despite the fact that this new technology could unearth hidden mysteries in the structures in Giza, some scientists argue that previous methods have already exhausted all possible chambers. Although it is true that the diverse chambers of the Pyramid of Cheops have already bee verified, the new study will rule out the possibility of any additional, hidden spaces. Even if it does not lead to any new conclusions, it will prove as a testament to technology’s increasingly helpful ways of identifying the past. Based on the text, why is infrared technology especially beneficial for the exploration of Egyptian Pyramids?

When Dinosaurs Coughed: Centuries of research and fossil evidence have allowed us to visualize various aspects of dinosaurs, ranging from how they looked to how they acted. Thanks to a recent study that analyzed fossil remains discovered in Montana, it is possible that dinosaurs may have even caught and dealt with the annoying symptoms of the common cold, just like humans do! During an excavation, paleontologists uncovered the remains of a diplodocid, a large herbivore with a long neck. Due to its size, this type of dinosaur breathed in air through sacs in its neck, which were directly connected to its respiratory system. The fossil remains of the dinosaur indicated that a pathogen had infected its lungs and respiratory system. Although researchers have not yet pinpointed the exact source of the infection, one hypothesis posits that it is the Aspergillus fungus, which infects reptiles and birds to this day. No matter the origin, the study shows that the illness caused symptoms similar to a cough and increased body temperature, which are indicative of the common cold. What is the main idea of the paragraph?

Nature’s Pharmacy: Paracelsus, a Swiss physician and alchemist who was considered a pioneer in medicinal practices during the Renaissance, was once quoted as saying, “Amidst the plains and mountains lie the best pharmacies”. While groups of homeopathic healers have long believed that nature may hold the secret to curing ailments, recent studies have also suggested that plants may be valid alternatives when fighting illness and disease. Even so, will patients be willing to rely solely on nature’s pharmacy, rather than their trusted brick and mortar drug stores? The latest research on the topic leads to interesting facts and figures. In past centuries, the use of plants and herbs to cure ailments was a popular solution. However, it began to lose credibility in the 19th century, with the advent of pharmaceutical drugs. Phytotherapy, an allopathic discipline that uses natural extracts as medicines, was the most prominent medicinal therapy in the 1800s. In the 1900s, however, controversy regarding the lack of control measures in their manufacturing processes, coupled with the advent of pharmaceutical medicine, led to the decline of natural remedies and their popularity. Thanks to the current, more stringent protocol in the manufacturing process, though, alternative medicine is making a comeback. Unbeknownst to most of the population, phytotherapy must be studied by a trained and qualified professional. With this in mind, simply browsing the “Botanicals and Natural Remedies” aisle at the local pharmacy, or using lavender oil to help get rid of a headache, could actually do more harm than good. Without in-depth and accurate knowledge regarding the potential healing properties and side effects of various plants, using these natural supplements could alter the body’s healing cycles and possibly interfere with the use of other pharmaceutical drugs. Thanks to the fact that phytotherapy has become an internationally-recognized area of study, universities around the world offer academic programs dedicated to understanding the chemical properties of plants. However, access to more knowledge on a topic may not automatically persuade people to turn to natural supplements when battling general ailments. In fact, according to a recent survey, psychologists believe that it will take at least a few years before the average person includes natural supplements in their medicine cabinets. Moreover, people are unlikely to trust the input of holistic medical practitioners, even if they hold advanced degrees in phytotherapy. On the other hand, research suggests that once these facts become part of the mainstream medical industry, people may be open to new therapies. Until then, the potential curing effects of nature’s pharmacies may likely remain in classroom universities and history textbooks. What is the main idea of the third paragraph?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the primary cause of the characteristic sound that a hiccup makes?

Soda Ban: Cigarettes. Alcohol. Drugs. Most people agree that these things should be kept away from children and only consumed by adults in limited quantities, if at all. Is the same thing true for soda? A 20-ounce-bottle of soda has over sixteen teaspoons of sugar in it. This is twice the amount of sugar that the American Heart Association recommends a person should eat in an entire day. Furthermore, this 20-ounce bottle of soda delivers over 200 calories and no nutritive value; soda contains no vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein, or other nutrients. Drinking sodas and other sugary beverages can cause serious health problems. Consuming too many of these sugar-filled beverages may increase your risk for developing type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease, tooth decay, and certain kinds of cancer. Studies have also shown that people who drink soda tend to develop a condition known as metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a condition characterized by excess abdominal fat, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, high levels of triglycerides, and low levels of HDL cholesterol (commonly referred to as “good cholesterol”). Some places have already taken steps to reduce the amount of soda people consume. In California, for example, cafeterias and vending machines in grade schools can not sell soda. The city of Philadelphia also recently added a tax on sugary beverages, making sodas more expensive to purchase. Soda may taste good, but it is terrible for your health. There should be more bans and taxes to keep people from drinking these harmful beverages. Which of these options is an example of opinion, rather than factual information?

The first theory examined weather patterns in Botswana. Environmentalists looked into the possibility of droughts in the country, since they are the leading cause of mass deaths similar to this case. However, they were unable to confirm any recent periods of drought. In fact, the elephants did not seem to have problems accessing water or getting specific nutrients. Secondly, conservationists verified that all of the elephants contained their ivory tusks as well as all of their molars at the time of death and afterwards, eliminating any chance that poachers had something to do with the events. Although some experts initially considered that poachers may have poisoned the elephants, this theory was not plausible since other types of animals in the vicinity would have also met their deaths. However, scientists hypothesize that while a commercial poison can be ruled out as the cause, natural poisons may have something to do with the occurrence. What is the meaning of the word “plausible” as it is used in the paragraph?

Is There Anybody Out There? For over fifty years, scientists and those fascinated with outer space have been looking for signs of intelligent life in the vast universe. Although various conspiracy theorists have debated potential sights of unidentified foreign objects and even extra-terrestrial beings, these theories lack scientific evidence. In fact, other than one small signal picked up by a powerful radio telescope in 1977, scientists have not received any communication from neighboring planets. Most scientists have understood this lack of communication as a sign that Earth is the only planet in our solar system that contains existing life forms, but does research support this idea? At first, scientists were open to the idea that living beings may have existed on planets other than Earth. This was because it was initially speculated that the universe could possibly be full of habitable planets conducive to life. However, research regarding temperature shifts on certain planets across time has disproved this theory. Data has shown that four billion years ago, planets such as Venus, Earth, and Mars, could all have been habitable. However, within approximately a billion years from their birth, the temperature changes they experienced eliminated these possibilities. Mars, for instance, became very cold, whereas Venus developed into an extremely hot planet. Thus, even if Mars and Venus were once home to initial life forms, they may not have been able to keep up with the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Once astronomers and astrobiologists understood the reality of atmospheric pressures on other planets, they relied on new theories to shed new light on the matter. They learned that the atmospheres of different planets are quite delicate and that they are not stable enough to support advanced life forms. For a planet to be effectively habitable, it must have strong atmospheric stability, which is achieved through the greenhouse effect, a process that occurs as gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the Sun. Without this possibility, surface temperatures are not suitable for life forms. Of all the planets in the Solar System, Earth has managed to play a leading role in stabilizing its climate. This is why it could not only provide, but also maintain, an environment in which humans could evolve. Since Earth is the only planet known to have this capability, it is highly improbable that the Solar System contains other intelligent life forms that would be able to interact with human beings on Earth. However, this theory does not eliminate the possibility of finding fossilized life forms on other planets. If fossils were to be found on other planets, researchers believe that they would likely only be microbial in nature, further confirming that the atmospheric pressures on different planets would not support advanced life forms. Which of the following supports the idea that atmospheric pressure plays a pivotal role in the sustenance of life?

Dissociative Identity Disorder: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to “bring out” the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a “genuine” illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a “genuine” mental illness that is fostered by other people’s influences on a client’s life? No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and “genuine” problem. Question: Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage?

Despite the fact that the genome map was nearly-complete, researchers were still required to work through various gaps that were unable to be filled in through the use of nanopore-based methods. However, this new method was able to cut back on the amount of time researchers spent putting together shorter pieces in order to solve the complicated “DNA puzzle” of human genetics. Although this information is extremely beneficial for neuroscientists and researchers, what does it mean for the general population? Which of the following is not discussed as a fact about nanopore-based methods?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: Why does the author include the detail “fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21” in the passage?

When Dinosaurs Coughed: Centuries of research and fossil evidence have allowed us to visualize various aspects of dinosaurs, ranging from how they looked to how they acted. Thanks to a recent study that analyzed fossil remains discovered in Montana, it is possible that dinosaurs may have even caught and dealt with the annoying symptoms of the common cold, just like humans do! During an excavation, paleontologists uncovered the remains of a diplodocid, a large herbivore with a long neck. Due to its size, this type of dinosaur breathed in air through sacs in its neck, which were directly connected to its respiratory system. The fossil remains of the dinosaur indicated that a pathogen had infected its lungs and respiratory system. Although researchers have not yet pinpointed the exact source of the infection, one hypothesis posits that it is the Aspergillus fungus, which infects reptiles and birds to this day. No matter the origin, the study shows that the illness caused symptoms similar to a cough and increased body temperature, which are indicative of the common cold. Which of the following is true, based on the passage?

Preventing Heart Disease: Heart disease is a life-threatening condition that kills millions of people every year. In fact, heart disease is the number one killer of human beings worldwide; over thirty percent of deaths every year are due to some form of cardiovascular disease. Although there are many different types of medications and surgical procedures that can treat heart disease, prevention is the most important factor in reducing the number of deaths. Proper nutrition is important in preventing heart disease. The recommended diet for a healthy heart is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, salt, and refined sugar. The diet should be high in fiber, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Smoking and excessive alcohol consumption should be avoided. Smoking increases the risk for heart disease at least ten-fold, and drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of some fats in the blood and lead to high blood pressure and increase the risk of cardiovascular damage. Lack of physical exercise can also make a person more likely to suffer from heart disease. Participating regularly in aerobic exercise, which can include walking, jogging, dancing, or swimming significantly reduces the risk of heart disease. Another contributor to heart disease is stress. Constant stress can expose your body to persistently elevated levels of the stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline. High levels of these hormones can increase blood pressure and damage artery walls. Engaging in yoga, meditation, or other relaxation techniques can be helpful in reducing stress and lowering the risk of heart disease. Question: What is the best summary of the passage?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the meaning of the word triggered in paragraph 2?

Soda Ban: Cigarettes. Alcohol. Drugs. Most people agree that these things should be kept away from children and only consumed by adults in limited quantities, if at all. Is the same thing true for soda? A 20-ounce-bottle of soda has over sixteen teaspoons of sugar in it. This is twice the amount of sugar that the American Heart Association recommends a person should eat in an entire day. Furthermore, this 20-ounce bottle of soda delivers over 200 calories and no nutritive value; soda contains no vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein, or other nutrients. Drinking sodas and other sugary beverages can cause serious health problems. Consuming too many of these sugar-filled beverages may increase your risk for developing Type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease, tooth decay, and certain kinds of cancer. Studies have also shown that people who drink soda tend to develop a condition known as metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a condition characterized by excess abdominal fat, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, high levels of triglycerides, and low levels of HDL cholesterol (commonly referred to as “good cholesterol”). Some places have already taken steps to reduce the amount of soda people consume. In California, for example, cafeterias and vending machines in grade schools can not sell soda. The city of Philadelphia also recently added a tax on sugary beverages, making sodas more expensive to purchase. Soda may taste good, but it is terrible for your health. There should be more bans and taxes to keep people from drinking these harmful beverages. Which detail supports the idea that people have taken action against soda?

Evolution: From Wolves to Man’s Best Friend: According to a recent poll, dogs are considered to be the most popular and sought after pet for American families. Interestingly enough, what we now understand to be “man’s best friend” was once an independent predator that roamed wild lands. The transformation from wolves to dogs is not only a stunning example of evolution, but it also provides a fascinating look into how wolves have adapted to live in harmony with mankind. When it comes to interactions between species, most DNA experts agree that the long-standing relationship between mankind and dogs is a great mystery. How did our ancestors take on the idea of training a wild animal in hopes of creating a trusted animal ally? Aside from a recent discovery of animal fossils found in the Czech Republic, most data surrounding the evolution of wolves is inconclusive. Moreover, scientists and researchers in the field hold vastly different ideas when it comes to specific dates and explanations regarding the transformation. What is certain, however, is that the evolution of wolves into dogs happened over the course of at least a hundred thousand years. On a general level, it seems as though each theory that serves to explain the progress is paired with another specific theory that deflates the idea. For instance, one popular theory regarding the domestication of wolves posits that humans stole wolf pups from their dens in hopes of training them to protect their families. However, this idea has recently been debunked based on fossil evidence and a better understanding of ancient times through anthropological research. Instead, some experts believe that wolves were actually drawn to humans, and initiated friendly contact due to the excess food waste left in villages. Basically, wolves may have understood domestication as a means of survival, in that food was a guarantee in what may have been an otherwise difficult period for finding prey. If the latter theory is valid, it would seem that the beginning stages of this relationship were more advantageous for wolves. However, the theory of coevolution can shed light on how the relationship benefitted both parties. Many believe that wolves and humans coevolved, in that they affected each other’s evolution for the better and worked together. Wolves, for example, were able to assist humans when hunting for food, thanks to their extreme senses of sight and smell. On the other hand, humans looked after wolves and provided them shelter from outside elements. Of course, the physical and emotional habits of wolves transformed throughout this process. In other words, the first wolves cared for by humans were most likely presented with changes in metabolism due to decreased activity levels and an increased food supply. As these changes carried on through generations, domesticated wolves took on a smaller physical stature and a more relaxed emotional state. Despite these fascinating shifts, it is still possible to recognize the genetic link between wild wolves and America’s most playful pet. What is the main idea of the passage?

Nature’s Pharmacy: Paracelsus, a Swiss physician and alchemist who was considered a pioneer in medicinal practices during the Renaissance, was once quoted as saying, “Amidst the plains and mountains lie the best pharmacies”. While groups of homeopathic healers have long believed that nature may hold the secret to curing ailments, recent studies have also suggested that plants may be valid alternatives when fighting illness and disease. Even so, will patients be willing to rely solely on nature’s pharmacy, rather than their trusted brick and mortar drug stores? The latest research on the topic leads to interesting facts and figures. In past centuries, the use of plants and herbs to cure ailments was a popular solution. However, it began to lose credibility in the 19th century, with the advent of pharmaceutical drugs. Phytotherapy, an allopathic discipline that uses natural extracts as medicines, was the most prominent medicinal therapy in the 1800s. In the 1900s, however, controversy regarding the lack of control measures in their manufacturing processes, coupled with the advent of pharmaceutical medicine, led to the decline of natural remedies and their popularity. Thanks to the current, more stringent protocol in the manufacturing process, though, alternative medicine is making a comeback. Unbeknownst to most of the population, phytotherapy must be studied by a trained and qualified professional. With this in mind, simply browsing the “Botanicals and Natural Remedies” aisle at the local pharmacy, or using lavender oil to help get rid of a headache, could actually do more harm than good. Without in-depth and accurate knowledge regarding the potential healing properties and side effects of various plants, using these natural supplements could alter the body’s healing cycles and possibly interfere with the use of other pharmaceutical drugs. Thanks to the fact that phytotherapy has become an internationally-recognized area of study, universities around the world offer academic programs dedicated to understanding the chemical properties of plants. However, access to more knowledge on a topic may not automatically persuade people to turn to natural supplements when battling general ailments. In fact, according to a recent survey, psychologists believe that it will take at least a few years before the average person includes natural supplements in their medicine cabinets. Moreover, people are unlikely to trust the input of holistic medical practitioners, even if they hold advanced degrees in phytotherapy. On the other hand, research suggests that once these facts become part of the mainstream medical industry, people may be open to new therapies. Until then, the potential curing effects of nature’s pharmacies may likely remain in classroom universities and history textbooks. What is the main idea of the passage?

Dissociative Identity Disorder: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to “bring out” the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a “genuine” illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a “genuine” mental illness that is fostered by other people’s influences on a client’s life? No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and “genuine” problem. Question: What is the main idea of the passage?

Scientists presume that genome sequences can offer valuable information regarding common diseases and human biology. In fact, they believe that the recurring patterns could also provide clues to some of the most difficult scientific questions, especially those concerning evolution and how humans came into existence. It is predicted that further research will continue to increase the lengths of various DNA fragments, leading to new discoveries and perhaps even answers to the most puzzling biological concerns. Which of the following is NOT true, based on the passage?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: Which would best replace ‘stringent,’ used in the last sentence of the passage?

The first theory examined weather patterns in Botswana. Environmentalists looked into the possibility of droughts in the country, since they are the leading cause of mass deaths similar to this case. However, they were unable to confirm any recent periods of drought. In fact, the elephants did not seem to have problems accessing water or getting specific nutrients. Secondly, conservationists verified that all of the elephants contained their ivory tusks as well as all of their molars at the time of death and afterwards, eliminating any chance that poachers had something to do with the events. Although some experts initially considered that poachers may have poisoned the elephants, this theory was not plausible since other types of animals in the vicinity would have also met their deaths. However, scientists hypothesize that while a commercial poison can be ruled out as the cause, natural poisons may have something to do with the occurrence. Which of the following is a synonym of the word “drought” as it is used in the paragraph?

Dissociative Identity Disorder: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to “bring out” the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a “genuine” illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a “genuine” mental illness that is fostered by other people’s influences on a client’s life? No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and “genuine” problem. Question: Why does the author pose a question to readers in the last paragraph?

Preventing Heart Disease: Heart disease is a life-threatening condition that kills millions of people every year. In fact, heart disease is the number one killer of human beings worldwide; over thirty percent of deaths every year are due to some form of cardiovascular disease. Although there are many different types of medications and surgical procedures that can treat heart disease, prevention is the most important factor in reducing the number of deaths. Proper nutrition is important in preventing heart disease. The recommended diet for a healthy heart is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, salt, and refined sugar. The diet should be high in fiber, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Smoking and excessive alcohol consumption should be avoided. Smoking increases the risk for heart disease at least ten-fold, and drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of some fats in the blood and lead to high blood pressure and increase the risk of cardiovascular damage. Lack of physical exercise can also make a person more likely to suffer from heart disease. Participating regularly in aerobic exercise, which can include walking, jogging, dancing, or swimming significantly reduces the risk of heart disease. Another contributor to heart disease is stress. Constant stress can expose your body to persistently elevated levels of the stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline. High levels of these hormones can increase blood pressure and damage artery walls. Engaging in yoga, meditation, or other relaxation techniques can be helpful in reducing stress and lowering the risk for heart disease. Question: According to the text, what is the relationship between alcohol consumption and fats in the blood?

The Original Roman Holiday The classical phrase, “All roads lead to Rome,” is used to signify the importance of the Italian capital in culture, especially in terms of navigation and architecture. Although most of us are likely familiar with this phrase — as well as the influence the early Romans had on modern infrastructure — we are probably not as informed regarding just how many of our traditions date back to the Roman empire. In fact, the next time you prepare for a beach getaway or a trip abroad, it would be worth noting that vacations were invented by noble society members in ancient Rome. Each August, government officials, their families, and affluent members of the society traveled to the brisk seaside in order to escape the scorching heat of the capital city. Evidence from the time period suggests that large estates, otherwise known as villas, were home to the wealthy citizens for nearly the entire month. The most popular holiday centers were located along what is now known to be the Gulf of Naples. Unfortunately, these lavish resorts were entirely swept away by the devastating volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, forcing anthropologists to piece together descriptions and paintings of these areas rather than collect actual artifacts. Before the tragedy, however, the three most popular resorts in the area (Herculaneum, Stabia, and Oplontis), were home to wealthy Romans once a year. Based on written accounts, the centers were finely decorated with frescoed arenas and often contained direct access to the lush seaside and private spas. Since each location contained dedicated servants, chefs, and even farmers to tend to the guests and the area, vacationers did not typically bring their usual wait staff with them on vacations. Based on this evidence, it is clear that the Romans had all members of the society in mind when creating the August holiday season. Interestingly enough, the custom of taking vacations (or at least relaxing for a few days) in August is still popular in Italy and the surrounding countries. In fact, August 15th is still considered a national holiday in Italy, which seeks to honor the first ruler of the Roman Empire: Augustus. Not only does the name for the eighth month of the Gregorian calendar derive from this emperor’s, but the name of the bank holiday does as well. In particular, the Latin phrase, feriae Augusti, literally translates to “August’s rest”. Although vacations are now taken throughout the year, usually based on work schedules and other priorities, some areas of the world still follow the traditions of ancient civilizations. What is the author’s general opinion regarding the volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD?

Human embryo research is controversial and ethically murky. Based on moral perspectives on human embryos, countries such as Turkey, Russia, Germany, Austria, and Italy do not allow research on human embryos. China, Japan, India, Canada, Spain, and the U.K. permit human embryo research strictly up to 14 days. Brazil and France have no such limitations. Following previous International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) standards, 14-day research limits align with when embryonic implantation completes In May 2021, ISSCR updated guidelines, encouraging academics, scientists, and institutions to discuss 14-day human embryo research limits and related ethical issues with the public. Moral and ethical concerns are highly complex and important. Human embryo research should be allowed at least up to 14 days because it can yield benefits to the study of cancer, congenital diseases, miscarriages, infertility, and human development. Why does the author include the sentence “Moral and ethical concerns are highly complex and important” in the paragraph?

Paleontologists have found what they call a “one in a million” fossil. Splitting rocks to find perfect fossils is painstaking. But one 310-million-year-old horseshoe crab fossil broke by chance to reveal impressions of its central nervous system. Brains consist of such delicate soft tissues and they are extraordinarily hard to preserve, even through fossilization. Soft tissues are incredibly rare to find in fossils because soft tissues decompose so quickly, especially the delicate fatty structures of the brain. To date, only about 20 fossilized arthropod neural tissue samples have been identified. The ancient arthropod’s fossilized brain bears striking resemblance to that of present-day horseshoe crabs. The impression holds valuable clues about the species’ evolution. Which of the following statements best describes the point of view of the author?

The Original Roman Holiday The classical phrase, “All roads lead to Rome,” is used to signify the importance of the Italian capital in culture, especially in terms of navigation and architecture. Although most of us are likely familiar with this phrase — as well as the influence the early Romans had on modern infrastructure — we are probably not as informed regarding just how many of our traditions date back to the Roman empire. In fact, the next time you prepare for a beach getaway or a trip abroad, it would be worth noting that vacations were invented by noble society members in ancient Rome. Each August, government officials, their families, and affluent members of the society traveled to the brisk seaside in order to escape the scorching heat of the capital city. Evidence from the time period suggests that large estates, otherwise known as villas, were home to the wealthy citizens for nearly the entire month. The most popular holiday centers were located along what is now known to be the Gulf of Naples. Unfortunately, these lavish resorts were entirely swept away by the devastating volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, forcing anthropologists to piece together descriptions and paintings of these areas rather than collect actual artifacts. Before the tragedy, however, the three most popular resorts in the area (Herculaneum, Stabia, and Oplontis), were home to wealthy Romans once a year. Based on written accounts, the centers were finely decorated with frescoed arenas, and often contained direct access to the lush seaside and private spas. Since each location contained dedicated servants, chefs, and even farmers to tend to the guests and the area, vacationers did not typically bring their usual wait staff with them on vacations. Based on this evidence, it is clear that the Romans had all members of the society in mind when creating the August holiday season. Interestingly enough, the custom of taking vacations (or at least relaxing for a few days) in August is still popular in Italy and the surrounding countries. In fact, August 15th is still considered a national holiday in Italy, which seeks to honor the first ruler of the Roman Empire: Augustus. Not only does the name for the eighth month of the Gregorian calendar derive from this emperor’s, but the name of the bank holiday does as well. In particular, the Latin phrase, feriae Augusti, literally translates to “August’s rest”. Although vacations are now taken throughout the year, usually based on work schedules and other priorities, some areas of the world still follow traditions of ancient civilizations. What is the author’s general opinion regarding society’s knowledge of Roman traditions?

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a culmination of extremely large-scale ocean currents present in the top 1,000 meters of the Atlantic Ocean. Warmer water high in salt content travels northwards through a system of currents. Once the warm, salty water reaches high latitudes in the subpolar region of the North Atlantic, the water cools rapidly. Cooling makes the water denser, so it sinks down below 1,000 meters and flows south again. This giant system transports heat from the tropics and subtropics north towards Greenland, Iceland, Canada, and the U.K. The AMOC modulates weather and climate to keep the regions around it habitable. Climate models predict that the AMOC’s cycles may start slowing over the coming decades, leading to increasingly extreme weather and further disrupting climate in both warm and cool regions. Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?

The Original Roman Holiday The classical phrase, “All roads lead to Rome,” is used to signify the importance of the Italian capital in culture, especially in terms of navigation and architecture. Although most of us are likely familiar with this phrase — as well as the influence the early Romans had on modern infrastructure — we are probably not as informed regarding just how many of our traditions date back to the Roman empire. In fact, the next time you prepare for a beach getaway or a trip abroad, it would be worth noting that vacations were invented by noble society members in ancient Rome. Each August, government officials, their families, and affluent members of the society traveled to the brisk seaside in order to escape the scorching heat of the capital city. Evidence from the time period suggests that large estates, otherwise known as villas, were home to the wealthy citizens for nearly the entire month. The most popular holiday centers were located along what is now known to be the Gulf of Naples. Unfortunately, these lavish resorts were entirely swept away by the devastating volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, forcing anthropologists to piece together descriptions and paintings of these areas rather than collect actual artifacts. Before the tragedy, however, the three most popular resorts in the area (Herculaneum, Stabia, and Oplontis), were home to wealthy Romans once a year. Based on written accounts, the centers were finely decorated with frescoed arenas and often contained direct access to the lush seaside and private spas. Since each location contained dedicated servants, chefs, and even farmers to tend to the guests and the area, vacationers did not typically bring their usual wait staff with them on vacations. Based on this evidence, it is clear that the Romans had all members of the society in mind when creating the August holiday season. Interestingly enough, the custom of taking vacations (or at least relaxing for a few days) in August is still popular in Italy and the surrounding countries. In fact, August 15th is still considered a national holiday in Italy, which seeks to honor the first ruler of the Roman Empire: Augustus. Not only does the name for the eighth month of the Gregorian calendar derive from this emperor’s, but the name of the bank holiday does as well. In particular, the Latin phrase, feriae Augusti, literally translates to “August’s rest”. Although vacations are now taken throughout the year, usually based on work schedules and other priorities, some areas of the world still follow the traditions of ancient civilizations. Which supporting detail is an example of opinion, rather than fact?

Understanding Stress Mechanisms Meeting deadlines, presenting important projects, or balancing professional and personal priorities are just a few ways that people experience stress on a daily basis. Despite the fact that most of these stress-inducing activities seem to stem from outside factors, our internal response to stress plays an important role in managing the ebbs and flows of life. In fact, the brain has an excellent way of establishing a resilient response system, but most of us probably do not realize the power that the mind can have over stressful situations. When confronted with a difficult situation, the mind activates its very own defense system which starts from the most “instinctive” zone of the brain: the hippocampus and the amygdala. These parts of the brain are extremely important structures. The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for declarative or episodic memory. The two amygdala, on the other hand, are located close to the hippocampus and are essential for the input and processing of emotion. Thus, these two regions of the brain interact during emotional events, in order to translate the events into outcomes. For example, in an anxiety-inducing situation, the two structures would likely unleash a series of hormones that would generate negative emotions, such as anxiety. However, responses to stress involve much more than just the hippocampus and the amygdala. Specifically, when it comes to hormones, another important factor is the reaction of the pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain. This gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland”, since it is known for controlling the output of most hormones in the body. For this reason, it interacts with the responses from the hippocampus and the amygdala. Soon after the pituitary gland takes action, the adrenal glands produce cortisol, a hormone that keeps the body in a state of alertness. Prominent markers of this state include an increased heartbeat, profuse sweating, and heavy breathing. Finally, these actions trigger the glucose reserved in the liver to be released into the bloodstream, providing a quick dose of energy and preparing a person for an acute stress response, which is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. Although it is common to attribute these dramatic responses to stress in cases of physical harm, such as getting into a car accident, the body maintains this reaction even in instances of emotional stress. As such, it would not be unusual for someone with a fear of public speaking to go through the same emotions, or experience an anxiety-induced physical state, before delivering a speech in front of a large crowd. After all, the brain is concerned with protecting the body from all types of uncomfortable situations. What is the best way to summarize the fourth paragraph?

Understanding Stress Mechanisms Meeting deadlines, presenting important projects, or balancing professional and personal priorities are just a few ways that people experience stress on a daily basis. Despite the fact that most of these stress-inducing activities seem to stem from outside factors, our internal response to stress plays an important role in managing the ebbs and flows of life. In fact, the brain has an excellent way of establishing a resilient response system, but most of us probably do not realize the power that the mind can have over stressful situations. When confronted with a difficult situation, the mind activates its very own defense system which starts from the most “instinctive” zone of the brain: the hippocampus and the amygdala. These parts of the brain are extremely important structures. The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe, is responsible for declarative or episodic memory. The two amygdala, on the other hand, are located close to the hippocampus and are essential for the input and processing of emotion. Thus, these two regions of the brain interact during emotional events, in order to translate the events into outcomes. For example, in an anxiety-inducing situation, the two structures would likely unleash a series of hormones that would generate negative emotions, such as anxiety. However, responses to stress involve much more than just the hippocampus and the amygdala. Specifically, when it comes to hormones, another important factor is the reaction of the pituitary gland, which is attached to the base of the brain. This gland is commonly referred to as the “master gland”, since it is known for controlling the output of most hormones in the body. For this reason, it interacts with the responses from the hippocampus and the amygdala. Soon after the pituitary gland takes action, the adrenal glands produce cortisol, a hormone that keeps the body in a state of alertness. Prominent markers of this state include an increased heartbeat, profuse sweating, and heavy breathing. Finally, these actions trigger the glucose reserved in the liver to be released into the bloodstream, providing a quick dose of energy and preparing a person for an acute stress response, which is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. Although it is common to attribute these dramatic responses to stress in cases of physical harm, such as getting into a car accident, the body maintains this reaction even in instances of emotional stress. As such, it would not be unusual for someone with a fear of public speaking to go through the same emotions, or experience an anxiety-induced physical state, before delivering a speech in front of a large crowd. After all, the brain is concerned with protecting the body from all types of uncomfortable situations. What is the best summary of the passage?

Traditionally, type 2 diabetes control methods have involved drugs that manage risk factors including high cholesterol, blood sugar, and cholesterol. These drugs fail to treat the underlying causes of type 2 diabetes. The disease stems from issues with the ability of the hormone insulin to control blood sugar effectively. Controlling blood sugar levels with drugs is a treatment, not a cure. Research increasingly demonstrates that surgery and dieting to lose weight helps to resolve some underlying causes of type 2 diabetes. Weight loss helps the body control blood sugar on its own and can be a step towards type 2 diabetes remission. Specific diets like low-carbohydrate regimens have promising results in accomplishing remission. Low-carbohydrate diets lead to remission in one in five people, while meal-replacement diets achieve remission in about one in three people. Which of the following statements best describes the point of view of the author?

Neuroscience in the Classroom When it comes to early childhood education, could principles of neuroscience and experimental studies help educators teach more effectively? This is a popular question studied by leading international psychologists and research analysts focusing on educational psychology. However, the answer to this question requires advanced technological research tools, detailed scientific analyses, and, above all, time and patience to understand the results. Over the past ten years, innovative research centers have helped scientists understand how neural mechanisms impact children’s learning behavior. In other words, the study of neuroscience is opening new doors for analyzing how children learn basic functions. Neuroimaging, for example, is just one of the ways that scientists have been able to link visual capabilities with how well children comprehend letters of the alphabet. Although various concepts in early childhood education, such as observation and communication, are already understood within the scientific community and applied in the classroom setting, neuroscience allows psychologists to create completely new theories regarding childhood development. Currently, it is estimated that the discipline has allowed for the discovery of four pillars of learning: attentiveness, active output, feedback, and motor skills. The first learning pillar, i.e., attentiveness, is described as a child’s ability to digest both general and detailed concepts. That is, it helps children understand the “big picture” of a subject and focus in on the details when necessary. The second pillar, i.e., active output, seeks to quantify the verbal and written productivity of a student based on information received in the classroom. The third pillar, i.e., feedback, involves a child’s ability to self-assess and provide regular checks when understanding the material that has been learned. This pillar is noteworthy since it calls for both the feedback of the individual and that of the educator. Last but not the least, motor skills are acquired through daily repetition of what has been learned. Thanks to natural sleep cycles, this information is consolidated and stored in the brain for future access. An important part of these pillars is the concept of automatization, which occurs when a skill has been practiced so much that it becomes second nature and requires little to no conscious effort. However, according to leading experts at the Sorbonne University in Paris, a number of systematic errors can still present themselves with automatization. For instance, studies have shown that younger students seem to make simple mistakes in logic and reasoning problems in classroom settings, even though these tasks involve automatization. Researchers believe that training the brain through neuroscience practices can eliminate the occurrence of these mistakes while strengthening automatization. The abundance of research pertaining to neuroscience in the classroom as well as the increasingly vast possibilities of new theories have led to the development of a new field: neuroeducation. However, as with any new discipline, it will need to overcome hurdles within the scientific community. Although projects and collaborations between scientists and educators around the world are growing, gaining acceptance within the educational sphere will likely require more stable results to establish credibility. Which of the following ideas can be inferred from the text?

The rampant genetic disorder cystic fibrosis impacts primarily the lungs. It causes repeated lung infections, labored breathing, and coughing up mucus. Cystic fibrosis is incurable and also affects the kidneys, liver, pancreas, and intestine. At Hubrecht Institute, UMC Utrecht, and Oncode Institute, researchers manipulated cultured human stem cells to interfere with mutations that cause cystic fibrosis. Through a method called prime editing, they replaced the flawed DNA pieces with healthy ones. Prime editing of genes is a safer variation of the gene-editing technique known as CRISPR/Cas9. The CRISPR/Cas9 approach involves cutting the DNA, which damages other parts of the genome. Prime editing is safer than CRISPR/Cas9 because it builds a new piece of DNA without causing damage. Based on the information regarding CRISPR/Cas9, what can be inferred about its role in the eradication of cystic fibrosis?

The anesthetic drug ketamine is emerging as a potential depression treatment. Ketamine is used recreationally due to psychedelic effects. Clinically, two-thirds of patients experience relief from weeks of severe depression within hours of just a single ketamine dose. The early results are promising compared to limited results from conventional antidepressants. Researchers suspect that ketamine treats depression by influencing the neurotransmitter glutamate. Elevated glutamate release is associated with depression, stress, and mood disorders. In some brain regions, ketamine increases glutamate release. Other areas such as the prefrontal cortex decrease glutamate release in response to ketamine. Microscopic analysis shows ketamine encouraging neurons to release more adenosine, blocking glutamate production. There are still concerns about ketamine’s side effects. It is psychoactive and can cause fatigue, anxiety, restlessness, hallucinations, and dizziness. What is the best summary of the passage?

In 2020, mining corporation Rio Tinto blasted Juukan Gorges in Western Pilbara, Australia. The historically and culturally significant 46,000-year-old Aboriginal rock shelters were the only remaining Australian inland sites with signs of human life throughout the last Ice Age. Puutu Kunti Kurrama land owners mourn the irreparable loss. Rio Tinto attained ministerial consent to damage the caves in 2013. In 2014, archaeologists found new discoveries about the shelters’ ages and artifacts like 4,000-year-old human hair. State laws unbelievably allowed Rio Tinto to destroy them anyway. The shameful act is not an isolated incident. In 2019, a Sydney rail line’s construction destroyed a site, home to 2,400 18th and 19th century Aboriginal stone artifacts. Urgent legislation is needed to stop similar offenses—a current gas project threatens ancient Burrup Peninsula rock carvings. What is the author’s purpose for writing this paragraph?

The Choir of the Rainforest: Heard But Not Seen Some of the most popular sounds used for relaxation purposes include white noise and sounds of the tropical rainforest. When it comes to the latter, however, the most distinct chirping noise is made by a group of insects that is easily heard but almost impossible to spot with the human eye. Insects in the Tettigoniidae family, otherwise known as “bush crickets,” are aesthetically similar to long-horned grasshoppers. Their vocal capabilities, however, are extremely unique and serve an important biological purpose. Common insects in the Tettigoniidae family, such as crickets, are easily spotted in parks and neighborhoods. But if you were to walk through a lush rainforest, you probably would not be able to spot bush crickets since they are easily camouflaged within the abundance of green leaves on enormous trees. This specific trait helps these crickets protect themselves from predators, all the while communicating with each other across large distances. For this reason, bush crickets are known as the “invisible choir” of the rainforest, discreetly providing a clear soundtrack to nature’s wonders. According to a team of researchers in the Barro Colorado Island, located in the middle of the Panama Canal, bush crickets unleash a series of distinct howls throughout the night, with the highest point occurring right before dawn. These sounds are capable of being heard up to five kilometers away. Interestingly enough, the noises made by these insects seem to be in harmony with each other and make up a deliberate communication system. In fact, the survival of tropical species depends largely on the efficiency of the loud, nightly howls and unique chirping noises of these insects. After observing this species for decades, researchers have proven that male bush crickets not only utilize the sounds to find suitable mates but are also responsible for making up a majority of them. While their female counterparts may sometimes respond to these calls with separate sounds and calls, male bush crickets are the most prominent singers of the so-called choir, responsible for innumerable howls each night. The intensity of the sounds is made possible by the speed at which the crickets rub their wings together. Additionally, each wing contains a set of minuscule “teeth,” similar to a fine-tooth comb, which vibrates and further extends the reverberation throughout the entire rainforest. In an effort to distinguish the various mating calls and additional sounds of these insects, researchers in Panama have recently recorded the voices of over 60 species in the Tettigoniidae family. With these recordings, scientists hope to develop an algorithm that will help analyze the distinct sounds and eventually match each sound with its specific species. For the time being, though, one thing is clear: there is truly more than what meets the eye—and ear—when it comes to the soundtrack of the rainforest. Which of the following inferences can be made from the passage?

A “Clean” Replacement For Bees With the recent decline of bees and bumblebees, botanists have teamed up with scientists to answer a question that seems to become more important as time goes on: will it ever be possible to replace bees? The answers to this question may ultimately decide how the environment will be impacted once the likely extinction of bees takes place. Although it would be hard to replicate the intense labor of these life-sustaining pollinators, new technology may assist in finding alternative, practical solutions with the use of drones and a household cleaning supply: soap! Since 2017, researchers at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Japan have started replicating the necessary components for the fruitful pollination of various plants. They have discovered that employing the use of drones could effectively administer droplets of pollen to plants, similar to how bees would collect and distribute pollen in natural circumstances. Through numerous efforts of trial and error, however, the scientists have realized that even the smallest drones (measuring around four centimeters) could potentially damage the delicate nature of plants. Despite the rough, metallic exteriors of drones, researchers discovered a way to successfully utilize them in the pollination process. Instead of instructing the drones to drop pollen directly into each plant, they would release soft soap bubbles instead, which would safely encase the pollen and open upon contact with the plant. In order to develop a balanced mixture of all ingredients, pollen grains were first mixed with a nutrient-enriched soap solution that contained a low level of plant toxicity. The soap’s components were of maximum importance in this matter, since they could drastically alter the plants’ absorption of each pollen granule. Once the chemical levels of the soapy mixture were finalized, testing on actual Japanese pear plants began. After the drone dispersed the soap suds, each flower came into contact with approximately 2,000 granules of pollen. The team waited nearly two weeks for extremely positive results; the artificial process had provided as many fruitful results as would have been attained with natural pollination. Given the fact that most pollination of pear and apple trees is done by hand in Japan, this method would allow many more plants to be fertilized with the same amount of pollen in drastically less time. Although initial tests have produced positive results, the weather is likely to have a negative impact on the method’s immediate success. As of now, the bubbles’ efficiency is largely dependent on the weather, and could “pop” at inopportune times due to strong gusts of wind and even the slightest rain showers. Researchers believe that these problems could be solved with technology and robotic engineering programs. With more research and development, they hope to design an automated system that could map out the most logical routes based on daily weather forecasting and growth patterns. While these drones were established to solve a potential problem of extinction, they may help cut back costs of labor involved in fertilization. What can be inferred regarding the impact of weather on the pollination method with soap suds?

The Choir of the Rainforest: Heard But Not Seen Some of the most popular sounds used for relaxation purposes include white noise and sounds of the tropical rainforest. When it comes to the latter, however, the most distinct chirping noise is made by a group of insects that is easily heard but almost impossible to spot with the human eye. Insects in the Tettigoniidae family, otherwise known as “bush crickets,” are aesthetically similar to long-horned grasshoppers. Their vocal capabilities, however, are extremely unique and serve an important biological purpose. Common insects in the Tettigoniidae family, such as crickets, are easily spotted in parks and neighborhoods. But if you were to walk through a lush rainforest, you probably would not be able to spot bush crickets since they are easily camouflaged within the abundance of green leaves on enormous trees. This specific trait helps these crickets protect themselves from predators, all the while communicating with each other across large distances. For this reason, bush crickets are known as the “invisible choir” of the rainforest, discreetly providing a clear soundtrack to nature’s wonders. According to a team of researchers in the Barro Colorado Island, located in the middle of the Panama Canal, bush crickets unleash a series of distinct howls throughout the night, with the highest point occurring right before dawn. These sounds are capable of being heard up to five kilometers away. Interestingly enough, the noises made by these insects seem to be in harmony with each other and make up a deliberate communication system. In fact, the survival of tropical species depends largely on the efficiency of the loud, nightly howls and unique chirping noises of these insects. After observing this species for decades, researchers have proven that male bush crickets not only utilize the sounds to find suitable mates but are also responsible for making up a majority of them. While their female counterparts may sometimes respond to these calls with separate sounds and calls, male bush crickets are the most prominent singers of the so-called choir, responsible for innumerable howls each night. The intensity of the sounds is made possible by the speed at which the crickets rub their wings together. Additionally, each wing contains a set of minuscule “teeth,” similar to a fine-tooth comb, which vibrates and further extends the reverberation throughout the entire rainforest. In an effort to distinguish the various mating calls and additional sounds of these insects, researchers in Panama have recently recorded the voices of over 60 species in the Tettigoniidae family. With these recordings, scientists hope to develop an algorithm that will help analyze the distinct sounds and eventually match each sound with its specific species. For the time being, though, one thing is clear: there is truly more than what meets the eye—and ear—when it comes to the soundtrack of the rainforest. Which of the following ideas can be inferred from the passage?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: Which best explains the author’s opinion regarding the National Football League’s (NFL) response to concussion dangers?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: What is the primary purpose of the passage?

Concussions: Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe—and often fatal—psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form—using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player’s midsection rather than leading with the top of the head—should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL’s. Question: What is the meaning of the word ‘degenerative’ used in the second paragraph to describe ‘a degenerative brain disorder’?

A “Clean” Replacement For Bees With the recent decline of bees and bumblebees, botanists have teamed up with scientists to answer a question that seems to become more important as time goes on: will it ever be possible to replace bees? The answers to this question may ultimately decide how the environment will be impacted once the likely extinction of bees takes place. Although it would be hard to replicate the intense labor of these life-sustaining pollinators, new technology may assist in finding alternative, practical solutions with the use of drones and a household cleaning supply: soap! Since 2017, researchers at the Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Japan have started replicating the necessary components for the fruitful pollination of various plants. They have discovered that employing the use of drones could effectively administer droplets of pollen to plants, similar to how bees would collect and distribute pollen in natural circumstances. Through numerous efforts of trial and error, however, the scientists have realized that even the smallest drones (measuring around four centimeters) could potentially damage the delicate nature of plants. Despite the rough, metallic exteriors of drones, researchers discovered a way to successfully utilize them in the pollination process. Instead of instructing the drones to drop pollen directly into each plant, they would release soft soap bubbles instead, which would safely encase the pollen and open upon contact with the plant. In order to develop a balanced mixture of all ingredients, pollen grains were first mixed with a nutrient-enriched soap solution that contained a low level of plant toxicity. The soap’s components were of maximum importance in this matter, since they could drastically alter the plants’ absorption of each pollen granule. Once the chemical levels of the soapy mixture were finalized, testing on actual Japanese pear plants began. After the drone dispersed the soap suds, each flower came into contact with approximately 2,000 granules of pollen. The team waited nearly two weeks for extremely positive results; the artificial process had provided as many fruitful results as would have been attained with natural pollination. Given the fact that most pollination of pear and apple trees is done by hand in Japan, this method would allow many more plants to be fertilized with the same amount of pollen in drastically less time. Although initial tests have produced positive results, the weather is likely to have a negative impact on the method’s immediate success. As of now, the bubbles’ efficiency is largely dependent on the weather, and could “pop” at inopportune times due to strong gusts of wind and even the slightest rain showers. Researchers believe that these problems could be solved with technology and robotic engineering programs. With more research and development, they hope to design an automated system that could map out the most logical routes based on daily weather forecasting and growth patterns. While these drones were established to solve a potential problem of extinction, they may help cut back costs of labor involved in fertilization. Based on information in the passage, which of the following points can be inferred regarding the benefits of the proposed pollination system developed by the researchers?

Wrinkles: Skin wrinkles are caused by a variety of factors. Some of these factors are intrinsic, meaning that you cannot control them because they occur naturally. Others are extrinsic, meaning that they are caused by circumstances outside of the body. One intrinsic factor is aging. As you age, your skin loses collagen, which is the protein responsible for keeping your skin elastic. With less collagen, your skin becomes thinner and more fragile. Aging also reduces the functioning of sweat and oil glands, which work to keep the skin looking smooth. You also lose fat in the deeper layers of your skin as you age. This fat loss causes your skin to sag and develop deeper wrinkles. The two most common extrinsic factors are exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV rays) and smoking. UV rays in sunlight break down your skin’s connective tissue and collagen fibers. To prevent the appearance of wrinkles (as well as protect yourself from skin cancer), you should always use UV-blocking sunscreen. The nicotine in cigarettes is the most likely link between smoking and wrinkles. Nicotine narrows the blood vessels, reducing the blood supply to your skin tissue. This deprives your skin of oxygen and important nutrients, causing damage that contributes to wrinkles. Question: According to the text, what can be inferred from skin that has gone through the aging process?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the best summary of the passage?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the meaning of the word spasms in paragraph 1?

Wrinkles: Skin wrinkles are caused by a variety of factors. Some of these factors are intrinsic, meaning that you cannot control them because they occur naturally. Others are extrinsic, meaning that they are caused by circumstances outside of the body. One intrinsic factor is aging. As you age, your skin loses collagen, which is the protein responsible for keeping your skin elastic. With less collagen, your skin becomes thinner and more fragile. Aging also reduces the functioning of sweat and oil glands, which work to keep the skin looking smooth. You also lose fat in the deeper layers of your skin as you age. This fat loss causes your skin to sag and develop deeper wrinkles. The two most common extrinsic factors are exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV rays) and smoking. UV rays in sunlight break down your skin’s connective tissue and collagen fibers. To prevent the appearance of wrinkles (as well as protect yourself from skin cancer), you should always use UV-blocking sunscreen. The nicotine in cigarettes is the most likely link between smoking and wrinkles. Nicotine narrows the blood vessels, reducing the blood supply to your skin tissue. This deprives your skin of oxygen and important nutrients, causing damage that contributes to wrinkles. Question: Based on information provided in the text, which would NOT be an example of an extrinsic factor?

Fibromyalgia: Fibromyalgia is a chronic condition that affects an estimated 3-6% of the world’s population. The disorder is characterized by both physiological and psychological symptoms, including nerve pain, fatigue, sleep and mood disturbances, headaches, bowel problems, and incontinence. The exact cause of fibromyalgia is unknown. For some people, fibromyalgia symptoms begin after some sort of physical or psychological stress. However, for others, the onset of symptoms is gradual. Research has shown that genetics may play a part, but there is also evidence that environmental factors can contribute. The wide variety of symptoms made it difficult to diagnose and treat for many years, though recent research has made some promising advances. Although a cure for fibromyalgia has not yet been developed, research has shown that some of the symptoms can be treated with pharmaceuticals, such as tricyclics or gabapentinoids, or non-pharmacological methods, such as meditation, mindfulness, and cognitive behavior therapy. The most successful pharmacological treatment for fibromyalgia has been tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline. These drugs increase the levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, which are often found at decreased levels in the brains of people who suffer from chronic pain. By boosting endorphins and relaxing muscles, tricyclics can ease some of the musculoskeletal pain felt by people with fibromyalgia. Question: What is the main idea of the passage?

Does Low Body Temperature Cause Illness?: As children, we are often told to dress warmly in the winter so we do not get sick. This is a common piece of advice, but is there any truth behind it? In fact, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that being cold can get you sick. Most illnesses are caused by viruses and bacteria. Illnesses like strep throat, influenza, and the common cold are only spread through contact with other infected people. How cold you are when you come into contact with the virus or bacteria has nothing to do with whether or not you will get sick. The effect of body temperature on contracting illness was tested on human beings in the 1950s. Researchers divided volunteers into two groups: half of them were kept in a warm room and the other half were kept in a cold room. Both groups were then exposed to rhinovirus–the virus responsible for the common cold. The researchers discovered that members of both groups developed colds at the same rate. Since that first experiment, there have been similar experiments performed with a variety of different illnesses. All have yielded the same result: being cold does not make a person more likely to get sick. Of course, it does seem that people do get sick more often when the weather is cold. However, this is because there is some evidence that people do get sick more often in cold weather, but it has nothing to do with forgetting to bundle up when it is chilly. When it is cold outside, people tend to stay inside. With so many people gathered closely together indoors, germs are spread more easily. Germs are spread from person to person, regardless of how cold or warm their bodies are. Based on information in the text, what can be inferred regarding the findings of the experiment described in paragraph 2?

Preventing Heart Disease: Heart disease is a life-threatening condition that kills millions of people every year. In fact, heart disease is the number one killer of human beings worldwide; over thirty percent of deaths every year are due to some form of cardiovascular disease. Although there are many different types of medications and surgical procedures that can treat heart disease, prevention is the most important factor in reducing the number of deaths. Proper nutrition is important in preventing heart disease. The recommended diet for a healthy heart is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, salt, and refined sugar. The diet should be high in fiber, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Smoking and excessive alcohol consumption should be avoided. Smoking increases the risk for heart disease at least ten-fold, and drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of some fats in the blood and lead to high blood pressure and increase the risk of cardiovascular damage. Lack of physical exercise can also make a person more likely to suffer from heart disease. Participating regularly in aerobic exercise, which can include walking, jogging, dancing, or swimming, significantly reduces the risk of heart disease. Another contributor to heart disease is stress. Constant stress can expose your body to persistently elevated levels of the stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline. High levels of these hormones can increase blood pressure and damage artery walls. Engaging in yoga, meditation, or other relaxation techniques can be helpful in reducing stress and lowering the risk for heart disease. Question: Why does the author begin the passage with statistics regarding heart disease, such as “over thirty percent of deaths every year” ?

Hiccups: At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things—eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What can be inferred about some cases of persistent hiccups?

Dissociative Identity Disorder: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to “bring out” the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a “genuine” illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a “genuine” mental illness that is fostered by other people’s influences on a client’s life? No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and “genuine” problem. Question: What is the best summary for the passage?

Fibromyalgia: Fibromyalgia is a chronic condition that affects an estimated 3-6% of the world’s population. The disorder is characterized by both physiological and psychological symptoms, including nerve pain, fatigue, sleep and mood disturbances, headaches, bowel problems, and incontinence. The exact cause of fibromyalgia is unknown. For some people, fibromyalgia symptoms begin after some sort of physical or psychological stress. However, for others, the onset of symptoms is gradual. Research has shown that genetics may play a part, but there is also evidence that environmental factors can contribute. The wide variety of symptoms made it difficult to diagnose and treat for many years, though recent research has made some promising advances. Although a cure for fibromyalgia has not yet been developed, research has shown that some of the symptoms can be treated with pharmaceuticals, such as tricyclics or gabapentinoids, or non-pharmacological methods, such as meditation, mindfulness, and cognitive behavior therapy. The most successful pharmacological treatment for fibromyalgia has been tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline. These drugs increase the levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, which are often found at decreased levels in the brains of people who suffer from chronic pain. By boosting endorphins and relaxing muscles, tricyclics can ease some of the musculoskeletal pain felt by people with fibromyalgia. Question: Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?

Does Low Body Temperature Cause Illness?: As children, we are often told to dress warmly in the winter so we do not get sick. This is a common piece of advice, but is there any truth behind it? In fact, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that being cold can get you sick. Most illnesses are caused by viruses and bacteria. Illnesses like strep throat, influenza, and the common cold are only spread through contact with other infected people. How cold you are when you come into contact with the virus or bacteria has nothing to do with whether or not you will get sick. The effect of body temperature on contracting illness was tested on human beings in the 1950s. Researchers divided volunteers into two groups: half of them were kept in a warm room and the other half were kept in a cold room. Both groups were then exposed to rhinovirus–the virus responsible for the common cold. The researchers discovered that members of both groups developed colds at the same rate. Since that first experiment, there have been similar experiments performed with a variety of different illnesses. All have yielded the same result: being cold does not make a person more likely to get sick. Of course, it does seem that people do get sick more often when the weather is cold. However, this is because there is some evidence that people do get sick more often in cold weather, but it has nothing to do with forgetting to bundle up when it is chilly. When it is cold outside, people tend to stay inside. With so many people gathered closely together indoors, germs are spread more easily. Germs are spread from person to person, regardless of how cold or warm their bodies are. What is the author’s purpose in writing this passage?

Although lemurs are among the most requested exotic pets around the world, they are also subject to illegal trading, particularly by parties who make a profit from selling these animals as food. However, not only those who partake in exclusive fine dining are seen as responsible for endangering the species. Due to recent economic crises around the world, particularly in Africa, even local communities are being forced to get food any way they can. In this case, inhabitants have resorted to hunting lemurs that were once considered sacred to them, in that they behave similarly to humans. Some experts believe that the future of other endangered animals could also be exacerbated by global economic crises. Which is NOT discussed as a fact about lemurs?

A new study at the University of Colorado Boulder is investigating fish fins. Study author Francois Barthelat and his team are searching for what makes fish fins so flexible and strong. Scientists are curious about how fins can move with such precision and sophistication. Fins do not contain any muscles, so fish move by twitching muscles at the base of their fins. To study their mechanics, Barthelat’s group developed computer simulations and 3D-printed models. The base muscles individually maneuver 20-30 stiff stem-like rays in each fin. All the rays in a fin have layers of collagen and harder material, segmented to move like fingers. The fins’ makeup gives them a balance of elasticity with enough stiffness to push water. Their engineering insights have implications for technological innovations like airplane wings and robotic surgical tools. Which of the following conclusions can be drawn about fish fins?

However, data suggests that these circumstances are only partly responsible for the lemurs’ disappearance from Madagascar. Rather, deforestation seems to be the most prevailing factor in their extinction. The forests covering Madagascar have decreased by more than 40% between 1950 and 2000. With a lack of lush trees and cool forests, lemurs stray from their original habitats in order to find new places to call home. In fact, data suggest that lemurs are not the only animals who make this decision. As of now, approximately 53% of African primate species are endangered due to the systematic destruction of their habitat. If this situation continues, it is likely that other animals will follow suit, further increasing the rate at which animals are becoming extinct in the African forests. Which of the following is NOT discussed as a fact about deforestation?

In 2017, astronomers located white dwarf LP 40-365 2,000 light-years from Earth. When small stars collapse, they shed their outer layers into ring-like nebulae, leaving behind the dense, hot core. This peculiar white dwarf was traveling nearly 2 million miles per hour against the Milky Way’s rotation. LP 40-365 is gradually escaping the Milky Way’s gravitational pull to eventually escape out into intergalactic space. The mysterious white dwarf contained carbon, oxygen, magnesium, and neon. Magnesium and neon appear as a result of intense energy levels from supernovas—star explosions. For this reason, Boston University researchers further investigated the star to figure out what sent it on its rogue path. When a white dwarf in a binary (paired) star system consumes its mate, it can destabilize and violently erupt into a supernova. What is the author’s purpose for writing this paragraph?

At the end of the program, participants from both the control and experimental groups answered questions regarding their satisfaction with the program and their overall happiness levels. Moreover, they also provided information on their health and current employment situations. In addition to reporting “excellent” or “good” health, over half of the beneficiaries in the control group had a greater confidence in the government and its future situation. Despite the emotional satisfaction, however, their unemployment levels had stayed the same throughout the twenty-four month experiment. In short, participants were happier, but not busier with outside employment commitments, nor were they any closer to sustaining themselves without government assistance. Which word would best replace the word “beneficiaries” as it is used in the paragraph?

The beginnings of human civilization and shift towards sedentary life accompanied the advent of agriculture, which most people would agree is one of the cornerstones of civilization. One theory for why agriculture arose is that climate cooling from 10,900 BC to 9,700 BC caused a food shortage. This might have forced humans to start growing food in order to have enough. The radiocarbon ages of ancient plant remnants were believed to support this hypothesis. But scientists recently reassessed them and are starting to think that the climatic cooling lessened sedentary life instead of triggering it. The Ritsumeikan University’s research team under Takeshi Nakagawa explored in-depth climate models of 16,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Using plant fossils and sediment radiocarbon dating, they discovered that agriculture and settlements likely began during warmer, more stable periods in the climate. Which supporting detail is an example of the author’s opinion, rather than a fact?

Despite the popularity of the common phrase, “Money can’t buy happiness”, scientists are prepared to disprove this idea with data. After testing the impacts of an alternative form of welfare on unemployed citizens, scientists have recently analyzed preliminary results of a popular two-year experiment held in Finland. They seek to explore whether a fixed minimum earning system could affect the satisfaction and happiness of unemployed citizens along with decreasing unemployment rates. The results may determine how the country – and others – move forward when it comes to universal social security systems. What is the meaning of the word “universal” as it is used in the paragraph?

Frequently referred to as “The Spirits of Madagascar”, the lemur belongs to the Strepsirrhini group, which contains other similarly charismatic primates, including the slow loris. Most of what is known regarding these animals dates back to the 20th century, when dozens of species were discovered and subsequently described over the course of several decades. Currently, 107 species of lemurs have been identified as originating from the African continent. However, some groups have been removed from their natural environment and shipped across the world in order to act as pets, most likely due to their lively personalities. Which of the following is true regarding lemurs?